摘要：SummaryThe emergence of pro-social behaviors remains a key open challenge across disciplines. In this context, there is growing evidence that expressing emotions may foster human cooperation. However, it remains unclear how emotions shape individual choices and interact with other cooperation mechanisms. Here, we provide a comprehensive experimental analysis of the interplay of emotion expressions with two important mechanisms: direct and indirect reciprocity. We show that cooperation in an iterated prisoner's dilemma emerges from the combination of the opponent's initial reputation, past behaviors, and emotion expressions. Moreover, all factors influenced the social norm adopted when assessing the action of others — i.e., how their counterparts' reputations are updated – thus, reflecting longer-term consequences. We expose a new class of emotion-based social norms, where emotions are used to forgive those that defect but also punish those that cooperate. These findings emphasize the importance of emotion expressions in fostering, directly and indirectly, cooperation in society.Graphical abstractDisplay OmittedHighlights•Emotion expressions' role in shaping reputation in society has been neglected•In our experiment, others had positive/negative reputation, strategy, and emotion•Results showed that emotion shaped how participants assigned reputations to others•This exposes a new class of emotion-based social norms missing in the literaturePsychology; Research Methodology Social Sciences; Social Sciences
