Spirituality, hope, compassion, and forgiveness: contributions of Pentecostal spirituality to godly love.
Sutton, Geoffrey W. ; Jordan, Kayla ; Worthington, Everett L. Jr. 等
Most of the world's seven billion inhabitants express
religious or spiritual beliefs. The vagueness of the religious-spiritual
construct has been addressed by many, leading to a vague notion that
people speak of the sacred and often engage in worship-like activities
or rituals they associate with the sacred. Many people identify with one
of the world's large religious groups such as the monotheistic
faiths of Judaism, Christianity, or Islam, or those associated with Asia
such as Hinduism and Buddhism. There are of course many other organized
sets of beliefs and even more subgroups. In this present study, we
examine the spirituality of Christians attending an American Midwestern
university affiliated with a Pentecostal fellowship.
Perhaps more important than concerns about what it means to be
religious or spiritual, is an interest in how the faithful express what
it means to be deeply spiritual or have a mature spirituality within
their faith community (Hood, Hill, & Spilka, 2009). In the current
study, we distinguish between religiousness and spirituality in that
religiousness is considered to include the beliefs and practices of an
organized religion (Hill et al., 2000), and spirituality is considered
to be the sense of relationship with the Sacred (Davis, Hook, Van
Tongeren, Gartner, & Worthington, 2012; Shultz & Sandage, 2006)
or a sense of closeness or connection with something Sacred (Davis et
al., 2012; Davis et al., 2010; Hill et al., 2000). When the Sacred is
religious, this has been called religious spirituality (Davis et al.,
2012). When humanity is considered to be Sacred, it is called humanistic
spirituality; nature, nature spirituality; and something beyond the
corporeal, transcendent spirituality (Davis et al., 2012). In the
present article, we consider religious spirituality and are particularly
concerned with a particular subset of religious spirituality--that which
is associated with Pentecostal or Charismatic Christianity, which we
call Pentecostal spirituality.
Pentecostalism and related Charismatic groups are among the fastest
growing Christian groups globally with upwards of half a billion members
worldwide (Pew Forum, 2006). Research indicates that religious
conversions often result in measurable changes in religious spirituality
(e.g., Paloutzian, 2005). Recent theorists have focused on possible
links between godly love and benevolence qua love expressed toward
others (e.g., Exline, 2012; Poloma, 2012) specifically in Pentecostal
samples. In this present study, we view benevolence as an important
dimension of spiritual maturity and explore links between godly love and
benevolence with a focus on the contributions of Pentecostal-Charismatic
spirituality.
Pentecostal-Charismatic Spirituality
The conceptualization and assessment of religion and spirituality
have been reformulated many times since the early focus offered by James
(1902). In 1999, Mahoney and Graci found that a small sample of experts
in religious studies identified charity, compassion, forgiveness, and
hope among the concepts associated with spirituality. Hill and Pargament
(2003) considered spirituality as more personal and subjective than the
more staid aspects of religion. Older studies appeared to either ignore
or use simple measures, such as church attendance, to identify
religiousness (Hill & Pargament, 2003).
One of the distinctive aspects of Pentecostal Christianity is an
emphasis on God's spirit at work in contemporary life experience.
This perspective is shared by Charismatic Christianity, which emerged in
the 1970s during the Charismatic renewal. In the present study, we
include features of Pentecostal and charismatic spirituality in the
concept, which we call Pentecostal-Charismatic spirituality. Like other
fundamentalists, Pentecostals are people who place a high value on
Biblical authority (Hood, Hill, & Williamson, 2005). The Bible is
considered to be a sacred text that, when interpreted correctly, offers
a comprehensive worldview and guidance for many of life's choices.
From the quintessential link to the power of God's Spirit described
in the Christian document of Acts and the Pauline teachings about the
gifts and fruits of the Spirit, Pentecostals developed a framework for
understanding spirituality as empowerment for service.
Recent theorizing by Pentecostal theologians (e.g., Yong, 2012),
and social scientists exploring godly love in Pentecostal communities
(Exline, 2012; Poloma, 2012) provides a theoretical basis for linking
the variables in our study. The theory of godly love posits that when
people interact with the divine, they are energized such that the
experienced love of God flows through them toward others in the form of
benevolence. In this formulation, the twin commandments at the heart of
Christianity--love God and love one's neighbors (Luke 10: 27)--are
linked in a model where the vertical dimension between a person and God
is perceived as providing the basis for the energy driving the
horizontal dimension of love toward others, although the flow of
influence is not strictly unidirectional. Poloma and Green (2010)
applied the emergent theory of godly love to the analysis of survey
responses from pastors and congregants in the Assemblies of God, the
largest American Pentecostal fellowship. Among the survey questions were
items asking about Pentecostal experiences (e.g., glossolalia, divine
healing) and self-reported compassion and benevolence.
Two exploratory books on godly love were published in 2012 (Lee
& Yong, 2012a; Lee & Yong, 2012b). The emerging theory was
discussed by many contributors in these two volumes in terms of barriers
to research and ways that godly love might be studied by social and
behavioral scientists. Of most relevance to the present study is the
theorizing on the psychology of godly love by Exline (2012). She
addressed a possible role for attachment theory in explaining how
Christians might develop a strong basis for loving God. Exline's
approach fit with Sutton and Mittelstadt's (2012) ideas regarding
the importance of attachment theory to the role of love in Pentecostal
communities.
In the present study, we operationalized key components of the
godly love-benevolence link using commonly available psychological
measures of variables discussed by the godly love theorists. More
specifically, we considered the predispositions of attachment as
fundamental aspects of a person's closeness (vs. avoidant
attachment) or security (vs. anxious attachment) toward God. We also
considered a possible contributory role for a general disposition or
orientation toward religiosity as traditionally measured by the
intrinsic-extrinsic dimensions described by Allport and Ross (1967) and
more recently explored by Homan and Boyatzis (2010). We hypothesized
that people who felt close to God and secure in their relationship with
God will have a strong intrinsic motivation rather than an external
motivation to better that relationship. We considered the motivational
construct of hope (Snyder et al., 1991) as providing a basis for
displaying godly love toward others. In Christian terms, hope is the
middle expression in Pauline theology linking faith, hope, and love (1
Corinthians 13:13) in the context of a variety of Pentecostal
experiences (1 Corinthians 12 and 14). Given the focus of the godly love
research on Pentecostal and charismatic adherents, we developed a
measure of spiritual empowerment derived from the theological and
experiential features of the Pentecostal and charismatic shared
experience, which we considered both a proximal and primary driver of
the way in which Pentecostals and charismatics would express godly love
toward others. Finally, we operationalized the construct of benevolence
posited by the godly love theorists using measures of compassion and
forgiveness. Although compassion presents an obvious conceptual
connection with benevolence, we included forgiveness also because it is
a quintessential Christian virtue linked inextricably to love by
Jesus' (Luke 7:4143) and is traditionally identified as one of the
two (in conjunction with love) central virtues of Christianity (Marty,
1998).
Pentecostal-Charismatic Spirituality and Psychological Constructs
Attachment to God
Kilpatrick and Shaver (1990) following the attachment models of
Bowlby and Ainsworth (e.g., Bowlby, 1969; Bretherton, 1992) first began
to explore the similarities between adult attachment and parent-child
attachment; this research opened the door to study adult attachment
models in various domains including religion. Given scriptural metaphors
of God as parent (e.g., 2 Corinthians 6:18; 1 John 3:1), it is not
surprising that researchers have studied the attachment between people
and God using operational definitions of avoidant and anxious attachment
to assess the degree to which people may experience these attitudes
toward God (e.g., Beck & McDonald, 2004; Hall, Fujikawa, Halcrow,
Hill, & Delaney, 2009). Kilpatrick (2012) discussed the attachment
theory of religion in terms of evolutionary psychology and compared
attachmentbased relationships with God to a social exchange-based
relationship with God. In Christianity, God is a loving figure who
provides safety and security. Studies have documented relationships
between these constructs of attachment and other aspects of spirituality
such as forgiveness (e.g., Davis et al., 2012; Shults & Sandage,
2006; Sutton, McLeland, Weaks, Cogswell & Miphouvieng, 2007). In our
present study, we considered the two dimensions--avoidant and anxious
attachment--as factors that could explain how people perceive their love
relationship to God and the potential link to other components between
godly love and benevolence.
Spirituality and Religiousness
Although spirituality can be a vague term, the classic dimensions
of intrinsic and extrinsic religious motivation considered by Allport
and Ross (1967) offer an opportunity to connect the aforementioned
theorizing about godly love to a widely used operationalization of
religious motivation. Those who are intrinsically religious have
internalized their faith. They see religion as an end in and of itself,
whereas those who are extrinsically religious conceive of religion as a
means to some other end. In the present study, we considered the revised
Intrinsic-Extrinsic Religiosity (IER) scale (Gorsuch & McPherson,
1989) as relevant to understanding religious spirituality. Although this
is an older measure, it continues to be used in recent research (e.g.,
Flere, Edwards, & Klanjsek, 2008; Homan & Boyatzis, 2010).
Conceptually, we would expect the intrinsic dimension of religious
spirituality to be most relevant to appreciating the relationship
between perceptions of godly love and the ultimate expression in
benevolence (i.e., neighborly love).
Hope
Hope is another factor prominent in Christian spirituality.
Wright's Surprised by Hope (2008) captured a focus on the important
role of hope in the Christian experience. Studies by Snyder and his
colleagues (e.g., Snyder et al., 1991) explored the nature of hope and
its relationship to other variables using the dispositional hope scale,
which we included in this study. More recently, Worthington (2006)
summarized evidence linking increased hope to forgiveness. Wade, Hoyt,
Kidwell, and Worthington (2014) meta-analyzed interventions to promote
forgiveness and found that, besides reliably instigating forgiveness,
such interventions also improved people's hope. Thus, we included
hope as a potential factor in understanding benevolence.
Pentecostal-Charismatic Experience
In the current study, we drew on theology and psychological
conceptualizations of Pentecostalism (Paloma, 2012; Yong, 2012), and the
similar (in many important ways) charismatic Christianity. However, no
measure existed to allow the quantitative assessment of
Pentecostal-Charismatic spirituality. Thus, we developed an index of
Pentecostal-Charismatic spirituality that included such distinctive
beliefs as divine healing, prophecy, and speaking in tongues. We sought
to explore a possible link to benevolence beyond that which might be
accounted for by comfort and closeness to God (i.e., the attachment
dimensions), spirituality (especially intrinsic religiosity), and hope.
Spiritual Maturity as Benevolence: Compassion and Forgiveness
Compassion. The concepts of love and forgiveness seem to be
quintessential concepts of Christian spirituality beautifully
illustrated in the story of the debtor and the humble woman in Luke 7
(Sutton & Mittelstadt, 2012). Although love appears to be a
multidimensional construct, one aspect of love would seem to be
compassion as identified by Mahoney and Graci (1999) and operationally
defined in the brief compassion scale developed by Hwang, Plante, and
Lackey (2008). Recently, the Assemblies of God, a Pentecostal
fellowship, added compassion to its mission statement, which
demonstrates the growing importance of compassion to Pentecostal
Christians (Assemblies of God USA, 2010). In his overview of theological
and psychosocial perspectives on love, Yong (2012) noted considerations
of some thinkers that love is at the heart of Christianity. He also
summarized findings of others within the edited work (Lee & Yong,
2012) that linked godly love to acts of benevolence in Pentecostals.
Forgiveness. Although forgiveness has only recently become a focus
of psychological research, forgiveness is a major religious concern
cross-culturally, and a specific concern for Judeo-Christian traditions
in the U.S. today (McCullough, Bono, & Root, 2005). It has been
strongly connected to religion and spirituality empirically (for a
meta-analysis, see Davis, Worthington, Hook, & Hill, 2013).
Forgiveness, related in Christian scripture to love (e.g., Luke 7), has
been studied as a trait or disposition as well as a transitional state
in response to particular offenders and their offenses. Furthermore,
forgiveness, and trait forgivingness in particular, have been shown to
be correlated with more positive health and well-being outcomes (for a
review see Worthington, Witvliet, Pietrini, & Miller, 2007). Higher
trait forgivingness is also correlated with more positive mental health
outcomes in treatment of depression (Webb, Colburn, Heisler, Call, &
Chickering, 2008). Forgiveness can include both the letting go of
negative emotions toward an offender and the replacing of those negative
emotions with positive emotions toward the offender (Rye et al., 2001;
Worthington, 2006). Leading psychological scientists such as Enright
(2001) and Worthington (2006) have researched and written widely on the
topic. Researchers have a number of scales available. In our study, we
selected a measure of trait forgivingness developed by Berry,
Worthington, O'Connor, Parrott, and Wade (2005).
Pentecostals and Forgiveness. In a recent edited volume (Sutton
& Mittelstadt, 2012), several Pentecostal scholars examined
forgiveness and related constructs of reconciliation and restoration.
Quigley and Awbrey (2010) attributed the process of forgiveness to an
inner transformation by the Holy Spirit. Brathwaite (2010) illustrated
the Holy Spirit-forgiveness connection between racially divided
Pentecostals at a joint meeting of African and European American
Pentecostals. Following a glossolalic expression, an interpretation
seemed to emphasize a call to unity. A European American leader asked
forgiveness of an African American leader as he washed his feet. Sutton
(2010) hypothesized that Pentecostals may be primed to quickly forgive
because of the enhancement of emotions within Pentecostal worship and a
belief in miracles often resulting in instantaneous transformations of
offenders, which can increase a victim's willingness to forgive.
Viewing racial oppression as spiritual slavery exemplifies a Pentecostal
perspective on the apartheid era recounted by South Africans Mostert and
van der Spuy (2010). They emphasized the important component of
forgiveness in the efforts of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission
and closed with a quintessential Pentecostal request from the Holy
Spirit for guidance.
Purpose and Hypotheses
Our purpose was twofold. First we wanted to test the godly love
model. Second we wanted to identify the unique contribution of
Pentecostal-Charismatic spirituality to benevolence. We drew upon the
emerging theory of godly love, which posits a link between the
experience of godly love and an ultimate expression of that love in
benevolence. In our formulation of the godly love model, we drew first
on attachment theory to identify the strength of a loving attachment
between Pentecostals and Charismatics and God and how that attachment
might first be linked to a general spirituality or religiosity trait
identified by Allport. We then considered that general sense of hope
characteristic of Christians. Ultimately, we wanted to examine the
contribution of Pentecostal empowerment to benevolence so we created an
index of Pentecostal experiences to examine how Pentecostal spirituality
(i.e., empowerment) might offer a unique and significant contribution to
benevolence.
We hypothesized that attachment to God, spirituality, hope, and
Pentecostal-Charismatic spirituality would significantly contribute
unique variance to explaining benevolence defined by compassion and
forgiveness. Furthermore, we hypothesized that Pentecostal-Charismatic
spirituality would significantly predict variance in benevolence beyond
that accounted for by the other variables in the model.
Method
Participants
In total, 394 participants (269 women and 125 men) completed the
measures at a small Midwestern Christian university. Participants were
mostly European American (85%). They identified religiously with
Assemblies of God/Pentecostal (65%), nondenominational (22%), Baptist
(8%), and other (6%). All participants were college students recruited
via emails sent to their campus email addresses: freshmen (17%),
sophomores (20%), juniors (22%), seniors (23%), and graduate students
(18%). Ages ranged from 18 to 62 with a median age of 21. The modal
responses for time spent in prayer each day were, in minutes, five
(16%), ten (19%), and fifteen (13%). Most participants (78%) reported
the frequency with which they attended religious services to be once or
twice each week.
Measures
We used the following measures in the study.
Attachment to God. The Attachment to God Inventory was developed by
Beck and McDonald (2004) and consists of 28 items divided into two
subscales. Fourteen items measure avoidant attachment and 14 items
measure anxious attachment. Each item was rated on a scale from 1=
disagree strongly to 7 = agree strongly. The minimum and maximum scores
for each subscale are 14 and 98. A sample item from the avoidant
subscale is, "I prefer not to depend too much on God." A
sample item from the anxious subscale is, "I worry a lot about my
relationship with God." Beck and McDonald (2004) reported alphas
for the avoidant subscale between [alpha] = .84 and [alpha] = .86 and
for the anxious subscale between [alpha] = .80 and [alpha] = .87. In the
current study, we found Cronbach's alpha = .87 for the anxious
attachment subscale and .86 for the avoidant attachment subscale.
Religious spirituality. The Intrinsic/Extrinsic Revised Religiosity
Scale (IER) was developed by Gorsuch and McPherson (1989) and consists
of 14 items divided into three subscales. Eight items measure Intrinsic
religiosity, three items measure Extrinsic-Social religiosity, and three
items measure Extrinsic-Personal religiosity. Each item was rated on a
scale from 1= disagree strongly to 5 = agree strongly, indicating the
degree to which the respondent endorsing intrinsic or extrinsic
motivations. The minimum and maximum scores are 8 and 40 for the
Intrinsic subscale and 3 and 15 for the two Extrinsic subscales. Higher
scores correspond to higher Intrinsic or Extrinsic religiosity. A sample
item for the Intrinsic Subscale is, "My whole approach to life is
based on my religion." A sample item from the Extrinsic-Social
Subscale is, "I go to church because it helps me to make
friends." A sample item from the Extrinsic-Personal subscale is
"Prayer is for peace and happiness." Gorsuch and McPherson
(1989) found Cronbach's alpha for the Intrinsic subscale to be .83,
for the Extrinsic-Social subscale to be .58, and for the
Extrinsic-Personal subscale to be .57. In recent studies, Flere,
Edwards, and Klanjsek (2008) reported alpha values between .70 and .78
from three Eastern European samples and Homan and Boyatzis (2010)
reported alpha values between .74 and .82. In the current study, we
found Cronbach's alpha = .63 for the Intrinsic subscale, .73 for
the Extrinsic-Social Subscale, and .62 for the Extrinsic-Personal
Subscale.
Hope. The Dispositional Hope Scale used by Brouwer, Meijer,
Weekers, and Baneke (2008) consists of eight items divided into two
subscales. The original Hope Scale was developed by Synder et al. (1991)
included four filler items in addition to the eight hope items. The
eight items were measured on a scale of 1 = definitely false to 8 =
definitely true. The minimum score is 8, and the maximum score is 64. A
sample item is, "I meet the goals I set for myself." Synder et
al. (1991) reported Cronbach's alpha values between .74 and .84. In
the current study, we found Cronbach's alpha = .85.
Pentecostal-Charismatic spirituality. For the Index of
Pentecostal-Charismatic Spirituality (PCS), we generated 13 items
commonly associated with Pentecostal beliefs in Spirit Baptism. (1) Each
item was rated on a 5-point rating scale from 1 = strongly disagree to 5
= strongly agree. One item was removed during the course of analysis
leaving a 12 item scale. We analyzed the full set of 12 items for
internal consistency and found Cronbach's [alpha] = .80. The score
distribution for the full scale (M = 32.07, SD = 8.49) satisfied basic
criteria for normality with skew (.41) and kurtosis (.05) well within
acceptable ranges. We considered the multiple analyses (item
inter-correlations, estimated internal consistency, skew, kurtosis) and
concluded that the 12 items adequately measured important facets of
Pentecostal spirituality (See Appendix A for the items)
Benevolence. We used the Santa Clara Brief Compassion Scale and the
Trait Forgivingness Scale as two measures of benevolence. These two
scales were used to examine two different dimensions of benevolence. The
Pearson r inter-correlations between the total scores on the two
measures were significant (r = .25, p < .001).
The Santa Clara Brief Compassion Scale (SCBCS) was developed by
Hwang et al. (2008) to measure trait compassion; it consists of five
items. Items were rated on a scale from 1 = strongly disagree to 7 =
strongly agree. The minimum score on the measure is five and the maximum
score is 35; high scores correspond to higher levels of compassion. A
sample item is, "I tend to feel compassion for people, even if I do
not know them." Hwang et al. (2008) reported [alpha] = .90. In the
current study, we found Cronbach's [alpha] = .90.
The Trait Forgivingness Scale (TFS) was developed by Berry,
Worthington, O'Connor, Parrott, and Wade (2005) and consists of ten
items. Items were rated on a scale from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 =
strongly agree. The minimum score is 10 and the maximum score is 50.
Higher scores indicate greater trait forgivingness. A sample item is,
"I am a forgiving person." Cronbach's alpha values in the
four studies in Berry et al. (2005) were between .74 and .80. In the
current study, Cronbach's [alpha] = .81.
Design and Procedures
The measures were presented using Google's online survey
application. Participants were emailed the link to the online survey
through their campus email. Participants were given an informed consent
statement to read. If the participants agreed to participate, they
clicked the link and were taken to the website where they completed the
measures and demographic questions. Finally, the participants were
thanked for their participation and debriefed. All participants were
treated according to APA ethics and guidelines.
Results
Overview and Preliminary Analysis
First, we examined the measures for normality. Measures of skew and
kurtosis were within acceptable limits for all measures. See Table 1 for
descriptive statistics and see Table 2 for the inter-correlations. Next,
we analyzed the 13 items of the PCS. Finally, we conducted a
hierarchical regression analysis to assess the contribution of
Pentecostal spirituality to explaining benevolence beyond that accounted
for by the other variables.
Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA)
We conducted an EFA to determine the underlying components of the
13-item PCS. Six participants were deleted as outliers determined using
Mahalanobis' distance. The sample was then randomly split in order
to analyze the scale with both EFA and CFA. The sample size for the EFA
was 187. We identified three factors based on an analysis of eigenvalues
and the scree plot. The program, FACTOR (Lorenzo-Seva & Ferrando,
2006), was used to determine the factor structure using unweighted least
squares method with a direct oblimin rotation. The first solution
achieved a simple structure in that all items significantly loaded on to
one factor. However, the fit indices of the solution were acceptable but
could be better (CFI = .91, NNFI = .84, RMSR = .05). Further analysis of
the factor loadings indicated that item 6 was not strongly loading on
factor 2 and theoretically did not belong with the other items on factor
2. Therefore, a second solution was conducted deleting item 6. This
solution retained a simple structure with fit indices indicating a good
fit (CFI = .95, NNFI = .90, RMSR = .04). The first factor, consisting of
items 7-11, accounted for 37.15% of the item variance. The second
factor, consisting of items 4, 5, 12, and 13, accounted for 12.66% of
the item variance. The third factor, consisting of items 1-3, accounted
for 11.03% of the item variance. Based on an analysis of item content,
we labeled the first factor Healing ([alpha] = .79). We labeled the
second factor Gifting ([alpha] = .79) and the third factor Service
([alpha] = .99). See Table 3 for factor loadings.
Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)
A CFA was conducted on the remaining 201 participants to determine
if the factor structure could be replicated. Using the maximum
likelihood method in SPSS AMOS 18, the factor structure was confirmed
(See Table 4). The only modifications were that the error for item 8 was
correlated with the errors from items 7 and 9. The fit indices of the
structure are good (CFI = .98, NFI = .91, SRMR = .05, RMSEA = .04). The
reliability values for the factors were [alpha] = .67 for Healing
factor, [alpha] = .69 for the Gifting factor, and [alpha] = .82 for the
Service factor.
Main Analysis
We conducted two hierarchal regressions to assess the unique
contribution of Pentecostal-Charismatic spirituality beyond that
accounted for by other factors in our formulation of the godly love
model using forgiveness and compassion as two measures of godly love.
Five participants were deleted as outliers using Mahlanobis's,
Cook's, and Leverage values.
The first regression used forgiveness as the dependent measure. the
first step revealed that love of God defined as attachment to God
(anxious and avoidant attachment) significantly explained trait
forgiveness, R = .430, [R.sup.2] = .185, [R.sup.2] adj = .181, F (2,
386) = 43.768, p < .001. The second step reexamined the model with
the addition of the three traditional religious spirituality variables
(intrinsic, extrinsic social, extrinsic personal). This step was also
significant, R = .478, R = .228, [R.sup.2] [sub.adj] = .218,
[F.sub.change] (3, 383) = 7.204, p < .001. The third step examined
the addition of hope, which was significant, R = .489, [R.sup.2] = .239,
R [sub.adj] = .227, [F.sub.change] (1, 382) = 5.400, p = .021. The final
step tested our main hypothesis that the addition of
Pentecostal-Charismatic spirituality represented by our three factors of
Service, Healing, and Gifting would significantly explain the
forgiveness dimension of benevolence beyond that accounted for by the
other factors. This hypothesis was not supported, R = .497, [R.sup.2] =
.247, [R.sup.2] [sub.adj] = .229, [F.sub.change] (3, 379) = 1.316, p =
.269. See Table 5 for the regression weights.
The same regression was conducted using compassion as the dependent
measure. The first step was significant, R = .426, [R.sup.2] = .182,
[R.sup.2] [sub.adj] = .178, F (2, 386) = 43.768, p < .001. The second
step was not significant, R = .431, [R.sup.2] = .186, R [sub.adj] =
.175, [F.sub.change] (3, 383) = .626, p = .598. The third step was
significant, R = .451, [R.sup.2] = .203, R [sub.adj] = .191,
[F.sub.change] (1, 382) = 8.350, p = .004. The fourth step with the
additional of Pentecostal-charismatic spirituality was significant
partially supporting our main hypothesis, R = .474, [R.sup.2] = .225,
[R.sup.2] [sub.adj] = .206, [F.sub.change] (3, 379) = 3.483, p = .016.
See Table 6 for regression weights.
Discussion
our findings offer some support for the general theory of godly
love posited by Poloma (2012) and yong (2012). That is, love of God
represented by attachment to God and combined with degrees of religious
spirituality, hope, and spiritual empowerment significantly explained
benevolence, or love of others, as represented by compassion and
forgiveness. We also found some support for our hypothesis that
Pentecostal-charismatic spirituality represented by our three
components, made a significant and unique contribution to understanding
the compassionate dimension of benevolence beyond that explained by
other variables. Pentecostal-Charismatic spirituality does not add
significantly to other aspects of spirituality when the benevolent
outcome is forgiveness but it does add significantly when the benevolent
outcome is compassion.
Exline (2012) explored ways that psychological scientists might
formulate questions and conduct correlational and experimental research
to study how a person's perception of loving God might be linked to
benevolence. Exline specifically theorized that love of God might be
measured in part by examining relational attachments. our study lends
credence to this notion given the significant contribution of attachment
to both dimensions of benevolence. In addition to attachment, she
suggested that other aspects of spirituality might contribute to an
understanding of the relationship between believers and God, which would
subsequently link to benevolence. our study also supported her
theorizing in finding that intrinsic spirituality and hope both
contribute to explaining benevolence. In general, we found initial
support for the idea that perceptions of closeness and security relating
to God along with intrinsic spirituality and hope significantly explains
benevolence when measured by forgiveness and compassion.
Although all three subscales of our index of
Pentecostal-Charismatic spirituality were significantly correlated with
both forgiveness and compassion, there was only minimal support for a
unique contribution in our formulation of the godly love model. The
finding that the index components significantly contributed to an
explanation of compassion beyond that of the other variables was
consistent with our expectations but the contribution was minimal. The
finding that the spirituality index did not make a unique contribution
to forgiveness was not consistent with our expectation. one possible
explanation for this outcome is that forgiveness is such a core
component of faith for all Christians and not at all unique to
Pentecostal-Charismatic spirituality.
Our findings significantly linking Pentecostal-Charismatic
spirituality to other aspect of spirituality within the godly love model
may support the intratextual model developed by Hood, Hill, and
Williamson (2005) to explain the psychology of religious fundamentalism.
The authors proposed that fundamentalist groups, which include
Pentecostal groups, engage in dialogue with sacred texts to inform their
spirituality. Consistent with this model, our 12 spiritual empowerment
items were based on the biblical texts cited by Pentecostals and
Charismatics (primarily Acts and 1 Corinthians chapters 12, 14). The
significant correlations between the three spiritual empowerment items
and each of the two dimensions of attachment to God offer support that
text based notions of spirituality are related to perceptions of feeling
close to and secure in the presence of God. Similarly, the significant
correlations between the three text-based factors and Intrinsic
Religiosity support the importance of the text in perceptions of inner
spirituality on a standard measure of inner spirituality. Finally, all
three text-based dimensions of Pentecostal-Charismatic spirituality were
also significantly linked to forgiveness and compassion.
Spirituality is a complex multidimensional construct. In their
model of forgiveness and relational spirituality, Davis, Hook, and
Worthington (2008) included attachment to God as a measure of the
relationship between forgiveness by a victim of a transgression and God.
That relational measure was found to predict forgiveness. Consistent
with the godly love model, their correlations indicated a significant
inverse relationship between both components of attachment to God
(anxious, avoidant) and forgiveness. using different measures of
attachment to God and forgiveness, our findings also yielded a
significant inverse correlation, suggesting that future studies may wish
to explore other relationships among the components of the godly love
model and the forgiveness and relational spirituality model. other
measures of relational spirituality have also been found to predict
forgiveness. These have included dedication to the Sacred (Davis et al.,
2009; Davis et al., 2010; Greer et al., 2013).
Our finding that, with the exception of the items unique to
Pentecostal spirituality, other available measures of Christian
spirituality adequately measure the dimensions of spirituality in our
formulation of the godly love model provide a basis for connecting these
findings with a wider body of research on attachment to God, hope,
Christian spirituality, forgiveness, and compassion.
Finally, we have provided the index of Pentecostal-Charismatic
spirituality--(Service, Healing, and Gifting subscales)--within this
article. We recognize that the Service items may be common to Christian
spirituality but we included those items because they are important to
Pentecostal-Charismatic spirituality. Beliefs in divine healing and
spiritual gifts may also be a part of other Christianities yet these two
groups of items appear to capture what is at least common, if not
unique, to Pentecostal and Charismatic spirituality. We have adduced
limited psychometric evidence in its support. For example, the Cronbach
alpha for the whole scale was .82 and the alphas for the subscales were
[alpha] = .802 for Service, [alpha] = .723 for Healing, and [alpha] =
.691 for Gifting. Each of the subscales was correlated with other
measures of religiousness or spirituality but the patterns of
correlation differed. For example, Gifting was not significantly related
to anxiety, whereas the other two subscales were negatively related to
anxiety. Additionally, Service was positively related to hope, but the
other two subscales were not. As noted above, Intrinsic spirituality was
significantly related to all three subscales. Finally, and of relevance
to the overall study, all three subscales were significantly correlated
with both dependent measures of compassion and forgiveness. These
generally similar, yet occasionally differential relationships provided
limited evidence supporting the convergent and discriminant validity of
the scale and subscales.
Limitations. We recognize that there are several limitations in
this study. Despite the wide age range, the sample was a university
student sample, which limits generalization to other populations. In
addition, we examined students at an Assemblies of God-affiliated
university; Pentecostals and Charismatics affiliated with other groups
in other countries may respond differently to the measures. Selecting
measures always depends on one's preferences. Our intent was to use
measures with evidence of adequate psychometric properties in previous
research and that are widely available for researchers interested in
extending this line of inquiry. We acknowledge that different measures
and measures of additional constructs may be of equal or greater value.
We also recognize that the inclusion of a measure of social
desirability would have improved the study. We do suggest that the lack
of significant skew for each scale offers some support for the idea that
participants were not rating themselves as exceedingly high on any
dimension of spirituality.
Although the way we operationally defined the constructs (godly
love, Pentecostal-Charismatic spirituality, benevolence) were viable in
this study, they may not apply elsewhere. We have included the list of
items for the Pentecostal-Charismatic Spirituality index in Appendix A
so other interested researchers may use or modify the items in future
research. We suggest the possibility that the items may work well in
other Pentecostal or Charismatic samples based on the psychometric
properties we obtained.
Future Research. There are many directions for future research.
Recent authors have only begun to explore the godly love model. Our
contribution suggests the model has viability and may share key
components with the relational spirituality model (Davis et al., 2008).
Further exploration with additional variables and different measures in
different samples offers opportunities for a richer understanding of
this promising field of research. Finally, we are encouraged with the
preliminary evidence supporting the estimated reliability and construct
validity of the PCS, and we suggest that additional data with various
Christian samples are needed to recommend it for full use.
Appendix
Pentecostal-Charismatic Spirituality Index Read each item
carefully. Using the scale shown below, please select the degree to
which you agree or disagree that each statement accurately describes
you.
Strongly Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Agree
1. I am an effective witness for my faith.
2. I am an effective teacher in a church or small group.
3. I am an effective leader or administrator in a church or small
group.
4. I speak in tongues.
5. I interpret tongues spoken by others.
6. I have been healed of a physical condition.
7. I have been healed of depression or anxiety.
8. I have been delivered from a sinful habit.
9. I have been led by God to pray for the sick or hurting.
10. I have prayed for the sick and they've been healed.
11. I have known things about others that only God could have
known.
12. I have spoken a prophecy.
Items for the three subscales are: Service (1,2,3), Healing (6,
7,8,9,10,), and Gifting (4,5,11,12).
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Notes
(1) We would like to thank Dr. Martin Mittelstadt, Associate
Professor of Biblical Studies at Evangel University, for his work in
developing this index.
Geoffrey W. Sutton Kayla Jordan
Evangel University
Everett L. Worthington, Jr.
Virginia Commonwealth University
Address correspondence to Geoffrey W. Sutton, Behavioral Sciences
Department., Evangel University, 1111 N. Glenstone Ave., Springfield, MO
65802.
Email: suttong@evangel.edu
Geoffrey W. Sutton, Ph.D. is Emeritus Professor of Psychology at
Evangel University. His research interests focus on the Psychology of
religion and spirituality.
Kayla Jordan is a graduate student in Experimental Psychology at
Missouri State University. Her research interests focus on conflict as
well as religion.
Everett L. Worthington, Jr., is Professor of Psychology at Virginia
Commonwealth University. His research interests are forgiveness,
marriage dynamics and enrichment, and religious and spiritual beliefs
and values.
Table 1
Descriptive Statistics for the Measures
[Measure.bar] [M.bar] [SD.bar] [Range.bar]
Avoidance 38.22 12.99 14-98
Anxiety 45.38 14.37 14-98
IER Intrinsic 34.05 4.10 8-40
IER Social 6.01 2.25 3-15
IER Personal 8.13 2.49 3-15
Hope 50.20 7.80 8-64
PCS Service 9.74 3.13 3-15
PCS Healing 14.37 4.56 5-25
PCS Gifting 7.97 3.54 4-20
Compassion 28.69 5.46 5-35
Forgivingness 39.66 6.17 10-50
[Measure.bar] [Skew.bar] [Kurtosis.bar]
Avoidance .54 -.14
Anxiety .29 -.33
IER Intrinsic -.72 .18
IER Social .52 .01
IER Personal .10 -.33
Hope -.52 .18
PCS Service -.22 -.77
PCS Healing .20 -.40
PCS Gifting .91 .15
Compassion -1.10 1.26
Forgivingness -.47 -.35
Note. N = 389. Avoidance = Attachment to God Inventory, Avoidance
Subscale; Anxiety = Attachment to God Inventory, Anxiety Subscale;
IER = Intrinsic-Extrinsic Religiosity Scale Revised (Intrinsic, Social
and Personal subscales); Hope = Dispositional Hope Scale; PCS = Spirit
Empowerment Index (Service, Healing, and Gifting subscales);
Compassion = The Brief Compassion Scale; Forgivingness = Trait
Forgivingness Scale. High scores on all measures indicate a high
degree of the characteristic.
Table 2
Intercorrelations between Predictor and Outcome Variables
1 2 3 4 5
1. Avoidant --
2. Anxiety .35 * --
3. IER Intrinsic -.58 * -.28 * --
4. IER Social .15 * .19 * -.16 * --
5. IER Personal .09 .24 * -.17 * .31 * --
6. Hope -.10 -.20 * .13 -.08 -.02
7. PCS Service -.38 * -.28 * .36 * <.01 -.01
8. PCS Healing -.39 * -.16 * .29 * -.03 .04
9. PCS Gifting -.29 * -.11 .21 * .08 -.05
10. Compassion -.41 * -.04 .26 * -.07 .03
11. Forgivingness -.35 * -.35 * .36 * -.13 * -.22 *
6 7 8 9 10
1. Avoidant
2. Anxiety
3. IER Intrinsic
4. IER Social
5. IER Personal
6. Hope --
7. PCS Service .32 * --
8. PCS Healing -.05 .33 * --
9. PCS Gifting -.01 .30 * .40 * --
10. Compassion .16 * .18 * .27 * .20 * --
11. Forgivingness .19 * .19 * .19 * .16 * .25 *
Note. N = 389. Avoidance = Attachment to God Inventory, Avoidance
Subscale; Anxiety = Attachment to God Inventory, Anxiety Subscale; IER
= Intrinsic-Extrinsic Religiosity Scale Revised (Intrinsic, Extrinsic
Social and Extrinsic Personal subscales); Hope = Dispositional Hope
Scale; PCS = Pentecostal-Charismatic Spirituality (Service, Healing,
and Gifting subscales).
Table 3
Exploratory Factor Analysis with Direct Oblimin Rotation for PCS
PCS Items Healing Gifting Service
1 0.246 .106 .446
2 -.028 -.078 1.035
3 -.052 .058 .842
4 .111 .424 .066
5 -.087 .621 .014
6 .502 .154 .020
7 .557 .161 -.032
8 .667 -.113 .019
9 .739 -.058 .033
10 .634 .095 .006
11 .155 .558 -.004
12 .003 .826 .006
Note. Items were required to load at least .3 on a component and no
greater than .3 on any other component.
Table 4
Confirmatory Factor Analysis for PCS
Factor Loading
Service
1. I am an effective witness for my faith. .582
2. I am an effective teacher in a church or small group. .899
3. I am an effective leader or administrator in a church .873
or small group.
Gifting
4. I speak in tongues. .506
5. I interpret tongues spoken by others. .414
11. I have known things about others that only God could .738
have known.
12. I have spoken a prophecy. .822
Healing
6. I have been healed of a physical condition. .536
7. I have been healed of depression or anxiety. .233
8. I have been delivered from a sinful habit. .280
9. I have been led by God to pray for the sick or hurting. .678
10. I have prayed for the sick and they've been healed. .785
Table 5
Summary of Regression Analyses Predicting Forgivingness
Forgiveness
Predictor [DELTA][R.sup.2] [beta] p [pr.sup.2]
Step 1 .185 <.001
Avoidance -.260 <.001 .07
Anxiety -.263 <.001 .07
Step 2 .044 <.001
IER Intrinsic .194 .001 .03
IER Social -.002 .969 <.01
IER Personal -.121 .013 .02
Step 3 .011 .021
Hope .106 .021 .01
Step 4 .008 .269
PCS Service -.061 .263 <.01
PCS Healing .067 .210 <.01
PCS Giving .050 .326 <.01
Table 6
Summary of Regression Analyses Predicting Compassion
Compassion
Predictor [DELTA][R.sup.2] [beta] p [pr.sup.2]
Step 1 .182 <.001
Avoidance -.453 <.001 .18
Anxiety .117 .018 .01
Step 2 .004 .598
IER Intrinsic .049 .392 <.01
IER Social -.031 .532 <.01
IER Personal .054 .279 <.01
Step 3 .017 .004
Hope .135 .004 .02
Step 4 .021 .016
PCS Service -.052 .342 <.01
PCS Healing .126 .020 .01
PCS Giving .074 .149 .01
Note. N = 389. Avoidance = Attachment to God Inventory, Avoidance
Subscale; Anxiety = Attachment to God Inventory, Anxiety Subscale;
IER = Intrinsic-Extrinsic Religiosity Scale Revised (Intrinsic,
Extrinsic Social and Extrinsic Personal subscales); Hope =
Dispositional Hope Scale; PCS = Pentecostal-Charismatic Spirituality
(Service, Healing, and Gifting subscales). For the model, [R.sup.2] =
.290.
