Adolescent and parent perceptions of the influence of religious belief and practice.

McMurdie, Carrolyn A. ; Dollahite, David C. ; Hardy, Sam A. 等

Religiousness seems to significantly influence people's lives. At the individual level, those who are more religious tend to experience greater mental health and physical health (Koenig, King, & Carson, 2012), as well as greater self-esteem and happiness (Hammermeister, Flint, Havens, & Peterson, 2001). Religious adolescents exhibit more prosocial behaviors (Hardy & Carlo, 2005) and less health-risk behaviors (Yonker, Schnabelrauch, & DeHaan 2012). In addition to these individual outcomes, religion is important to interpersonal relationships. For example, more religious couples show greater fidelity to their partners (Burdette, Ellison, Sherkat, & Gore 2007), and have stronger marital relationships with less distress (Fincham & Beach, 2013). Additionally, parental religiousness is related to parenting behaviors as well as child outcomes (Dumas & Nissley-Tsiopinis, 2006), and parents who believe in the sanctity of parenthood are less verbally aggressive to their children (Murray-Swank, Mahoney, & Pargament, 2006).

Overall, theory and research suggest religion can have many positive outcomes for individuals and families. Nevertheless, there is still much left to learn. First, it is unclear whether the current literature accurately captures the scope and nature of religious influence. There may be ways in which religiousness influences people that scholars have overlooked. Lay conceptions can be particularly useful for identifying such gaps in the literature (Hardy, Walker, Olsen, Skalski, & Basinger, 2011). Second, we still know little about the processes of influence. Thus, even if the field has adequately captured what areas of life religiousness influences, it is still unclear how or why these effects of religiousness occur. Qualitative self-reports of perceptions and experiences can often help elucidate such underlying processes (Daly, 2007).

To address these issues, we employed grounded-theory methods to discover how adolescents and parents perceived religion to influence their lives. Our rationale for doing this was twofold. First, qualitative instruments do not constrain results to a priori categories like quantitative measures (Daly, 2007), and they uncover lay perspectives on (Lambert, Fincham, & Graham, 2011) and deeper meanings of (Dollahite, Hawkins, & Parr, 2012) constructs studied. Secondly, subjective perceptions can be important predictors of behavior. For example, Schwartz (2006) found that adolescent perceptions of parental and peer religiosity predicted adolescents' religious behaviors and commitments.

Specifically, we pursued answers to the following research questions:

First, how do adolescents and adults perceive religion to influence their lives?

Second, do people perceive religion to impact them on an individual level, an interpersonal level, or both?

Third, what are the similarities and differences between adolescent and adult (parent) perceptions of religious influence?

Fourth, do perceptions of religious influence vary by demographic characteristics such as gender, ethnicity, and religious affiliation?

Method

Participants

The sample consisted of 419 adolescents (age range 15-18, M = 15.68, SD = .98; 83% European American; 56% male; religious affiliation: 29% non-religious, 26% Conservative Protestant, 22% Catholic/Orthodox, 9% Mainline Protestant, 5% other Protestant, 3% Jewish, 1% other affiliations, and 6% had missing data on religious affiliation); from 45 states in the United States. Additionally, of the parents initially contacted, 282 agreed to participate with their adolescent (40% male; 85% European American; religious affiliation: 18% Non-religious, 27% Conservative Protestant, 27% Catholic/Orthodox, 11% Mainline Protestant, 6% other Protestant, 4% Jewish, 1% other affiliations, and 6% had missing data on religious affiliation).

Parents were recruited via email through "eRewards," an online survey panel (www.erewards.com), which consists of over 3 million panelists recruited by invitation only using customer directories from partner businesses such as Pizza Hut and Best Buy. Only parents with adolescents ranging in age from 15 to 18 were contacted, and in the email parents had the option of clicking on a link to the survey (administered through Qualtrics; www.qualtrics.com). The first page of the survey provided information about the study and asked for parental permission for their adolescent to participate. If the parent consented, he or she was prompted to ask the adolescent to complete the youth survey. If adolescents assented, they were then directed to the youth survey. Once adolescents completed the youth survey, they were prompted to ask their parent (the initial contact) if he/she would fill out the parent survey. Parents who consented were directed to the parent survey. The participants were compensated through eRewards.

Procedures

Adolescents and parents were given the following instructions: "in what ways has religion influenced your life? Please give three examples." Three text-entry boxes followed. Responses were analyzed using grounded-theory methods. in a grounded-theory approach, coders read open-ended responses, identify common words or themes, and then use these words or themes to create preliminary coding categories. We used the qualitative software program NVivo 9 to code the open-ended responses and began by separating each participant's responses according to the first, second, and third responses. Next, a team of three coders analyzed the responses and created preliminary categories based on commonly appearing words or phrases. When a response did not correspond with any existing category, the coders discussed a possible categorization, created the category, and coded the response into the new category. Each response was discussed until a unanimous decision was made.

Once all the responses were coded into a category, the coders began axial coding. Only preliminary categories with ten or more responses were considered for inclusion in an axial code. To create axial codes, the coders examined similarities in the responses across categories. If all three coders agreed that the responses in two or more categories were strongly related, the categories were grouped into an axial code. This process was repeated until all of the preliminary categories were included in an axial code. The coders then unanimously agreed on a name for the axial code that encompassed the breadth of the categories within the code. After the axial codes were created, the coders went back and reviewed the responses within each category of each axial code. If the coders all agreed that the axial code represented the individual responses, it was kept; otherwise, coders continued discussion until an adequate axial code was found.

Once the responses were grouped into axial codes, the data were exported from NVivo 9 into SPSS version 19. Responses in SPSS were separated by axial codes and by the order of response (first example, second example, or third example), so a person could have up to three responses within one axial code, or three responses across three different axial codes. However, because some participants failed to provide all three examples, some of the second and third response axial codes were missing data. Responses such as "NA" or "none" or "kgjlskfej" were coded as un-interpretable and excluded from analysis.

Results

Adolescents

From the 419 adolescent participants, 816 responses were recorded. Only 252 (61%) participants gave three responses; 132 (31.5%) participants gave no response so they were excluded from the analyses. The responses included in the analyses fell into six axial codes: Interpersonal Relationships (274; 33.6%), Religious Values & Practices (143; 17.5%), Character Development (132; 16.2%), Spiritual Connections (95; 11.6%), Perspective (90; 11.0%), and Peace of Mind (65; 8.0%). Another seven responses fell into a category labelled as "Negative," but did not constitute an axial code because they failed to meet the cut-off of 10 responses per axial code. Ten responses (1.2%) were uninterpretable or were not responses to the posed questions.

Interpersonal relationships. The most reoccurring response was the perception that religion positively influences interpersonal relationships. one third of adolescent responses (n = 274) reflected the perception that religion led them to have better relationships with family and friends, led them to see others in a new light, and increased their love and charity for others. This overarching theme of interpersonal relationships emerged from the subcategories of Charity, Family, Love, Social Habits, and Views of Others. Examples of adolescent responses include: "influenced the kind of people I associate with"; "Allowed me to see the good in humanity"; "Made me realize we are all equal"; "Taught me to love"; and "showed me that all people have good in them." For some, this improvement in relationships came because they felt that they had a better perspective on the value of other people. Others felt they had been taught how to better interact with others. Finally, some perceived improved relationships because they believed that religion taught them to seek out new people with whom they could have a positive relationship.

It is interesting to note that adolescents often perceived this impact of religion to be proximally or internally located. For example, adolescents did not assert that religion made their friends and family better people to be around. Instead, religion was reported to help participants recognize the good in others, extend more love to others, and seek out better social groups. This shows that adolescents perceived religion to influence them and their relationships directly.

Religious values and practices. The second most frequently cited adolescent response (n = 143) focused on the perception that religion influenced their religious values and practices. The subcategories within this axial code were labelled Decision Making, Right from Wrong, Abstinence, and Attendance at Worship Services. What united the responses across these categories was a focus on how religion impacted their actual behaviors.

Within the subcategories of Decision Making and Right from Wrong, the responses made it clear that adolescents looked to religion for guidance in how to make choices or value judgments about possible behaviors. Examples included statements such as "Helps me make the right choices"; "Has been a driving force for me when I am faced with choices and peer pressure"; "Helps me know right from wrong"; and "Religion has been a basis for what I consider right and wrong." These responses may reflect internalization of values, as well perceived divine guidance.

Responses in the subcategory of Abstinence focused less on the internalization of values and more on observance of values. These responses were not coded within the previous subcategories because the responses seemed to indicate a more external locus of control. For example, some participants said religion influenced them by "[keeping] me from drinking alcohol"; "not to have sex"; "abstinence"; and "I'm not doing drugs." These responses indicated more external motivation, but they were grouped with the overall category of "Religious Values and Practices" because the adolescents were still observing religious behaviors.

Finally, adolescents also indicated that religion influenced them by leading them to observe religious ceremonies and rituals--falling within the subcategory of Attendance at Worship Services. Responses included: "I enjoy receiving the sacraments, especially communion"; "Go to church"; and "Go to church for Christmas and Easter." Thus religious practices, and not just religious values and teachings, were perceived to impact adolescents' behaviors.

Character development. A substantial number of responses (n = 132) focused on the theme of character development. While some adolescents replied that religion helped them be a Better Person in general, others indicated that religion impacted them specifically in the areas of Honesty, Gratitude, Education, and Forgiveness. However, these responses were grouped together because they all reflected a sense of personal improvement as a result of being religious.

Responses representative of this category stated that being religious "Makes me want to be the best I can be" and "It has made me a better person." Others consistently perceived that being religious "helped me forgive people"; "Be thankful for what I have"; "do not lie"; "do not steal"; and "Keeps me honest." Many responses indicated that religious involvement influenced them to strive harder and achieve more in their education. For example: "I have more of a drive for my education" and "Instilled in me the importance of a good education."

Spiritual connections. What distinguished these responses from those in Religious Values and Practices was the participants' focus on spiritual connections with the divine, not just adherence to religious habits. These participants perceived religion to be a medium for spiritual experiences that connected them to the divine. Thus, the focus of their responses was not on religious belief systems, teachings, or organizations, but on the spiritual connections they felt resulted from being religious.

Within this category, there were a total of 95 responses (11.6%) that encompassed spiritual connections through Faith, Prayer, and a Relationship with Deity. Within the subcategory of Faith, participants indicated that the impact of religion was that "It gives me something to believe in"; "Give me faith"; and "it makes me believe." Other responses from Relationship with Deity illustrated how adolescents felt closer to God as a result of their religion: "makes me free in knowing I can do anything with god by my side" and "helped me develop a relationship with God."

A sense of connection to the divine was also prevalent in the responses regarding Prayer. These responses did not focus on religious teachings regarding the need to pray, but rather on how prayer was perceived to connect them with the divine. They commented that religion had influenced them because "I get to talk to Jesus"; "I pray and have more faith." Responses such as these suggest that adolescents believe prayer helps them to feel strength and a closeness to God. Thus, all three subcategories under Spiritual Connection were united by the perception that religion helped adolescents come closer to God or experience a sense of the divine.

Perspective. Ninety responses (11%) indicated adolescents perceived a change in perspective as a result of religious involvement. These responses fell into three specific types of perspective: Life Perspective, View of Self, and Sense of Purpose. Participants' comments included these sentiments: "I feel like I have a purpose in life"; "changed my outlook"; "feel as though I'm a part of something bigger"; "Helped me see why I am important." Such responses suggest religion may have influenced them to re-interpret their relationship to the world. For some, this meant they perceived a heightened sense of self-worth. Others felt they discovered a "purpose" or a goal. By having this goal, the adolescents also felt their existence was important in the world and offered them the chance to make a contribution. Overall, religion expanded their minds and helped them to feel more meaningful, important, and empowered.

Peace of mind. The responses in this axial code (n = 65) had a consistent theme of feeling peaceful, tranquil, and reassured. The subcategories were Happiness, Overcoming Trials, Peace and Consolation, and Salvation. The first three categories reflected how adolescents believe religion helps them find peace in times of distress, uncertainty, and hardship. Examples include "makes me happy"; "Given me comfort in times of trouble/sadness"; "feeling of peace"; and "It has helped me to persevere through hardships." Responses in the last category, Salvation, reflect belief that religion brought peace of mind regarding spiritual uncertainties. The adolescents indicated that their religion "saved me from an eternal hell"; "allows me to live a life free of the guilt of sin"; and "I'm at peace knowing where I will spend eternity." Thus, religion was perceived as a powerful source of strength and happiness through hard circumstances.

Negative. Seven responses were negative (which meant there were too few responses to make this an axial code). Examples include statements that "religious people aren't always nice"; "I don't need religion"; "A lot of religious people are hypocrites"; and "limited my critical thinking ability." Thus, a small minority (less than 1%) of the responses were regarding negative perceived outcomes of religiousness.

Parents

Of the parents initially contacted, 282 chose to respond after their child completed the adolescent survey. Parents were not able to see responses their children gave nor were youth able to see responses their parents gave (unless they chose to show them). From these adult participants, we collected 687 responses. The parent responses were coded independently of the adolescent responses by the same team of coders. Parent responses were grouped into eight axial codes. Six of the eight categories were identical to those identified in the adolescent responses: Interpersonal Relationships (145; 21.1%), Religious Values & Practices (106; 15.4%), Peace of Mind (94; 13.7%), Character Development (93; 13.5%), Spiritual Connections (80; 11.6%), and Perspective (74; 10.8%). A category unique to parents was titled Family (83; 12.1%), and was separated from Interpersonal Relationships because of the large number of responses that specifically mentioned marriage relationships, raising children, and family interactions. Parents also had sufficient Negative (12; 1.7%) responses to constitute an axial code.

Interpersonal relationships. Similar to adolescents, parents were most likely to perceive religion to impact their interpersonal relationships (n = 145). Responses within this axial code were grouped into the subcategories of Charity, Social Habits, and Views of Others. First, in the category Charity, religion was believed to lead individuals to be kinder and more selfless and understanding in relationships. Many participants stated that religion "Taught me to be a caring person;" "Helps me to put others before myself;" "Made me realize I can help others;" "More giving;" and "I think of others before myself."

In the second subcategory, Social Habits, responses highlighted the perception that religion impacted how people met and connected with others. Some felt religion helped them connect with people similar to them in background. For example, religion "Brought me together with others who share my cultural background;" "Brings your family and community together to pray and thank God for all his blessings" and "I enjoy people with views similar to my religious belief." Others felt religion helped them mingle with those different from them. They commented that religion "helps me to interact with a variety of individuals during the course of the day" and "made me feel a unity with people of various backgrounds and personalities."

Finally, responses from the subcategory Views of Others reflected the sentiment that religion helps people more positively perceive others. Responses included: "I want to see the good in others"; "Taught me to respect others"; "Accepting all types of people"; and "Understand the value of each life." Individuals viewed religion as a constructive influence that helped them see other people in a more positive way. Instead of feeling like religion led them to judge and condemn others, they believed it helped them be more appreciative of diversity.

Religious values and practices. Like adolescents, parents perceived religion to impact their religious values and observances (n = 106). The subcategories revealed that parents felt religion guided their Decisions and Choices, impacted their Moral Conduct, and provided Guidance and Direction. Within Decisions and Choices, responses included "Make better decisions in life"; "Good choice making"; and "It influences most of my decisions." Participants felt religion impacted the way they evaluated options and made choices. Responses regarding Moral Conduct showed religion was perceived to "Provide a standard for behavior"; "gave me moral guidance"; and "It gave me standards to live my life by a sense of right and wrong."

While the above responses are similar to adolescent responses regarding Decision Making and Right from Wrong, the parental subcategory of Guidance and Direction is more distinct. Responses within this subcategory suggested some parents viewed religion to be more of a "guide" in making decisions than a set of strict rules. For example, one parent mentioned "It guides me in my day to day life" and others stated that religion "Provided me with a life guide" and "guided my personal decisions" or "guided my business decisions." Such responses contrast with those viewing religion as something that simply states correct and incorrect choices; put differently, religion is something to be used as an aid rather than a law that must be obeyed.

Peace of mind. Many parents (n = 94) indicated that religion brought them a sense of peace and wellbeing. Within the subcategory Happiness, parents mentioned that they felt "happiness" and that religion led them to "be happy for others." Others mentioned how religion helped them cope with life difficulties such as illness, accidental injuries, and a loved one's death (subcategory--Overcoming Trials). Their comments included "Important in death of loved one"; "Given me strength thru difficult times--divorce, children's illness"; "Helped me beat cancer"; and "comforts me through struggles with family/worries."

Other responses demonstrated that religion was a perceived source of Peace and Consolation. Many participants noted religion had "Given me peace in the circumstances of life" or that it "strengthens me" and "I feel peace in a crazy world." Finally, similar to the adolescent responses, the parents had a subcategory of Salvation, noting that because of religion they felt that "I am saved and know where I am going" and "Saved me from hell." Stated differently, they felt religion "gave me a hope of eternal life" and "I have eternal life." These responses conveyed a sense of peace in believing in a future "eternal life" filled with joy and free from pain.

Character development. The parents' responses within this category (n = 93) were similar to the adolescents' responses. Several parents felt religion helped them develop positive character traits in the subcategories of Honesty and Integrity, Forgiveness, Gratitude, and being a Better Person. Examples within the first subcategory include "I tend to be very honest" or "I'm known as a very honest person." Within the subcategory of Forgiveness, one participant explained that religion "Allowed me to completely forgive others of their actions towards me, because I have been forgiven of my transgressions by the maker of this universe." Within Gratitude and Better Person, participants indicated that as a result of being religious, "I'm more grateful for the little things I have"; "It has made me a better person, a better husband, and a better father"; "Helped form my character"; and it "Helps me be a better person." Thus, many perceived religion to have a positive transforming influence on who they are.

Family. Unlike adolescents, the parents had an axial code specifically for how religion was perceived to impact families. These responses (n = 83) were separated from the category of Interpersonal Relationships because they focused specifically on Marriage Relationships, Raising Children, and Family Relationships Overall. Regarding Marriage Relationships, many stated that religion "Made me a better spouse" or "Made me a better wife and mother." Others stated that being religious helped them "Be true to my partner"; or be a "Better husband"; "a good wife." These responses reflected the belief that religion helped them be better marriage partners. Although they did not specify why it made them a better spouse, they felt religion led to personal improvement that enabled them to have happier marriages.

Responses within the subcategory of Raising Children reflected two common themes. The first theme centered on the perceived impact religion had on their ability to raise children. Many indicated that because they were religious, "It has guided me in raising my children" or that "It has taught me how to be a good mother" or "Love my kids" and "Be a good parent." Another parent stated, "It has influenced the way I see life, but specifically the way I am as a parent. As a parent, I can more easily 'relate' to God's sacrifice for us by sending His Son to die for us." A second reoccurring theme within this subcategory was the belief that religion led to better parenting outcomes. Many responses reflected the sentiment that religion was "Helping me to raise respectful, kind children" or "helped me raise my children better" and "I feel like I am raising thoughtful children" and "Teaching my children, helping them grow into quality character adults." Overall, religion was perceived to foster better relationships with children and increase the likelihood that children would develop desirable characteristics.

The final subcategory focused on Family Relationships Overall. Several parents indicated that religion helped their family relationships be more harmonious and cohesive. Their responses stated that religion "Brings family together"; "provided love in our home"; and "Made me closer to my family." Others stated religion impacted "all aspects of my family life" or "Family as a whole, supportive to each other's needs and beliefs." These responses suggest that parents perceive religion to help unite family members and encourage family closeness.

Spiritual connections. Similar to the adolescents, parents (n = 80) also mentioned ways religion influenced their spiritual connections to the divine. This category arose from three subcategories of Faith, Relationship with Deity, and Spiritually. Among those who mentioned faith, they expressed that religion influenced them to "Have a stronger faith in God"; "be faithful"; "Faith that god is there always"; and "Taught me to have Faith in God." These responses all center on the perception that religion teaches or enables faith, which then connects them with something more divine. Many also directly expressed how they felt religion provided them with a relationship to the divine. Their responses stated that religion "taught me how to believe in God and have a relationship with him;" "Brought me closer to God"; "get closer to God"; "I put God first"; and "Helped me to get to know god." For these individuals, religion is valuable because it is seen as an aid to creating and maintaining a relationship with God.

Finally, some participants directly articulated a connection between religiousness and spirituality. They stated that religion made them "Stronger spiritually"; "I have become more of a spiritual person"; and "Made me a more spiritual person." Thus, for many, religiosity is clearly viewed as an important influence on spirituality. While religiosity and spirituality are commonly separated in the literature, participants viewed these two concepts as intricately intertwined.

Perspective. The last theme from parent responses (n = 74) was religion's perceived impact on their life perspective. The subcategories within this category suggest both externally-focused and internally-focused changes in perspective. For example, the subcategories Life Perspective, Focus/Purpose, and Hope reflect a general outlook on how to view the world. Within these subcategories, participants' expressed that religion helped them "Have a better outlook on life"; "Gives me hope"; "it gives purpose"; and "Keeps me focused." All of these responses suggest religion provided them with a framework from which to navigate the world in a more positive and productive way. The fourth subcategory, View of Self, had a slightly different focus. Instead of changing their perspective when looking outward, these participants felt religion changed how they perceived themselves. For some, this meant religion "Helps me define who I am"; "It has helped me to love myself"; and "Religion has defined my values and who I am as a person." This suggests religion may be an impactful force in shaping identity.

Negative. A small portion (n = 12) of responses from parents were negative. Responses within this axial code reflected some common themes. First, a couple of participants felt religion increased feelings of "guilt" or "made my life guided by guilt." Others perceived religion as restrictive in that it "limited my options" or "limited my experiences." Third, some viewed religion and/or religious people as hypocritical. They made statements that "most holy men are corrupt" and "allowed me to learn that many religions claim the same beliefs and still don't follow most of them." Thus, a few parents experienced religion negatively.

Similarities Between Adolescent and Parent Responses

As illustrated in Table 1 and Table 2, parents and adolescents had six identical axial codes. This suggests adults and children often perceive the same influences from religiousness. To statistically test similarities between adolescent and parent responses, we had to quantify the frequency of responses within each coding category. This was done by summing, for each participant, the number of responses that fell within each coding category. So, a variable was created for each coding category with values ranging from 0 to 3 based on the number of responses a participant gave in a particular category. We then used bivariate correlations to test if adolescents and their parents consistently gave responses in the same categories. Our results showed that parent and adolescent responses were significantly and positively related in four of the six categories (Interpersonal Relationships, r =.21, p < .01; Religious Values and Practices, r = .28, p < .01; Character Development, r = .20, p < .01; and Spiritual Connections, r = .25, p < .01). Even though these correlations are modest, they highlight how parents and adolescents from the same family independently provided similar responses.

Demographic Differences in Adolescent and Parent Responses

Lastly, we used multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) to test for gender, ethnic, and religious affiliation differences in adolescent and parent responses. For adolescent responses, there were no significant differences by gender, Wilk's [LAMBDA] = .97, F (6, 292) = 1.46, ns, Partial [[eta].sup.2] = .03, or ethnicity, Wilk's [LAMBDA] = .91, F (24, 1016) = 1.19, ns, Partial [[eta].sup.2] = .02. Nevertheless, there was a significant effect for religious affiliation, Wilk's [LAMBDA] = .80, F(36, 1188) = 1.16, p = .004, Partial [[eta].sup.2] = 04. However, the only significant univariate test was for Spiritual Connections, F (6, 275) = 2.51, p = .02, Partial [[eta].sup.2] = .05. Follow-up Tukey pairwise comparisons revealed that the only significant difference on Spiritual Connections was between non-religious people (M = .15) and Conservative Protestants (M = .47). Thus, for adolescents, perceptions of religious influence were largely invariant across gender, ethnicity, and religious affiliation.

For parent responses there were no effects for gender, Wilk's [LAMBDA] = .97, F (7, 241) = 1.26, ns, Partial [[eta].sup.2] = .04, or ethnicity, Wilk's [LAMBDA] = .88, F (28, 863) = 1.08, ns, Partial [[eta].sup.2] = .03. There was an effect for religious affiliation, Wilk's [LAMDBA] = .73, F (42, 1049) = 1.71, p = .004, Partial [[eta].sup.2] = .05, with the only significant univariate test for Peace of Mind, F(6, 229) = 2.41, p = .049, Partial [[eta].sup.2] = .05. However, none of the pairwise comparisons were significant. So, parent perceptions of religious influence were largely invariant across gender, ethnicity, and religious affiliation.

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to further our understanding of how religion is perceived to impact people's lives. To address this research question, we asked adolescents and parents to describe three ways they perceived religion to influence them. Six common themes emerged in adolescent and parent responses: Interpersonal Relationships, Religious Values and Practices, Character Development, Spiritual Connections, Perspective, and Peace of Mind. Additional themes emerged for parents around the concepts of Family and Negative experiences. Overall, people overwhelmingly felt religion had a positive impact in their lives.

While the coding separated the data into these different themes, as we looked at the broader picture, we observed similarities in the responses that seemed to stretch across these themes and highlight broader trends. First, responses within the themes of Interpersonal Relationships, Family, Spiritual Connections, and Peace of Mind all shared a common thread regarding relationships, whether with the divine, with family members, or with people of different backgrounds. Next, responses within the categories of Religious Values and Practices and Perspective shared references to the ways religion is perceived to "guide" or "provide direction" in life. Finally, responses within the category of Character Development were distinct because they focused more on individuals and how they could become better people.

Perceptions of Religion's Influence on Interpersonal Relationships

According to our participants, religion plays a large role in guiding their relationships. For adolescents and parents, the most common responses fell into the theme of Interpersonal Relationships. Such frequency suggests the impact of religion on interpersonal relationships is particularly salient. Some stated that religion influenced how they valued and interacted with other people--they were more likely to treat people with kindness and charity because of their religion. This echoes prior work linking religiousness to altruism (Hardy & Carlo, 2005), to conflict avoidance and resolution (Lambert & Dollahite, 2006), and to relational commitment (Lambert & Dollahite, 2008). Others indicated religion led them to reach out and socialize with people they might otherwise have overlooked. For these participants, they clearly felt religion guided them to focus outwardly on others instead of on themselves. This is in line with evidence suggesting that more religious people are also more conscientious, agreeable, and extraverted (Egan, Kroll, Carey, Johnson, & Erickson, 2004; Wink, Ciciolla, Dillon, & Tracy, 2007).

Within parents' responses, the category Family demonstrated how they perceived religion to guide them in their families. Several stated religion taught them to be "better" and "faithful" spouses. There is evidence that more religious couples have higher marital quality and less instability and conflict (Day & Acock, 2013), and are more likely to maintain fidelity (Dollahite & Lambert, 2007). Participants also felt religion helped them raise their children into "quality adults." In line with this, studies have linked parental religiosity to adaptive youth outcomes via positive parenting styles and practices (Power & McKinney, 2013). Indeed, evidence is mounting demonstrating how religious beliefs and practices can frame perceptions of family relationships (e.g., as "sanctified") and influence the quality and stability of those relationships (Burr, Marks, & Day, 2012; Mahoney, 2013). instead of leading people to focus on what family should do for them, religion may lead families to focus on how they can serve their families.

In a more indirect manner, participant responses in the category Spiritual Connections also demonstrated religion's perceived impact on relationships. For example, participants made statements about how religion "taught me to have faith in God." From these responses, it seems that faith alone was not the goal. Religion was perceived to teach them to have faith in God, implying a perceived relationship with the divine. Other participants explained this relationship more directly noting that religion "helped me develop a relationship with God." They felt they came "to know God" and could depend on God to "be there always." Indeed, there is evidence linking religiousness to a more positive relationship with God (Goodman & Dollahite, 2006), although more work is needed in this area.

There were also references to religion impacting relationships in the category Peace of Mind. Many responses within this category mention how religion was perceived to serve as a source of "strength" through family problems and the death of loved ones. There are numerous ways in which religion may help with family difficulties, such as aiding relationships of those struggling with illness (Koenig, 2013) or impending death (Soenke, Landau, & Greenberg, 2013), helping people cope with the illness or death of family members (Krause et al., 2002; Koenig, 2013), or easing burdens of parents with difficult or special needs children (Cotton, Yi, & Weekes, 2013). In fact, the source of strength and coping can be the relationship with God (Harris, Allen, Dunn, & Parmelee, 2013). This shows that religion may not only promote positive relationships, but it might also help people cope with challenging ones.

Perceptions of Religion as a Source of Direction and Guidance

Many participants also viewed religion as a "guide" that helps them make decisions and find direction in life. This sentiment was expressly stated in the category of Religious Values and Practices. Many participants stated religion helped them "know right from wrong." Others felt religion led them to "make better decisions in life," and said it "guides me in my day to day life." Congruent with these perceptions, evidence is mounting linking religiousness to morality (Walker & Reimer, 2006). Many people see religion as an important guide to the moral aspects of their lives (Walker, Pitts, Hennig, & Matsuba, 1995), and there is evidence to support this at the trait and state level. In other words, religiousness can play a role in our general moral tendencies (Hardy, Walker, Rackham, & Olsen, 2012) as well as our daily moral functioning (Hardy, Zhang, Skalski, Melling, & Brinton, 2013). Religions encourage certain behaviors and discourage others, and such norms can guide behavior (Woodbury, Johnson, Hardy, & Dollahite, 2013). This might help explain evidence linking religiosity to more prosocial behaviors (Hardy & Carlo, 2005) and fewer antisocial behaviors (Janowski, Hardy, Zamboanga, & Ham, 2013).

Participants did not merely perceive religion to provide direction through rules and guidelines; rather, in the category of Perspective, many said religion gave them a new "outlook" on life. They commented that religion "gave me purpose" and "helped me define who I am." All of these responses reflect the perception that religion helps people evaluate how they see themselves in relation to the world. Indeed, religiousness has been linked empirically to identity formation (Hardy, Pratt, Pancer, Olsen, & Lawford, 2011; Layton, Hardy, & Dollahite, 2012), as well as purpose (Mariano & Damon, 2008) and meaning in life (Emmons, 2005). The ways in which religion might facilitate these meaning-making processes has been well articulated elsewhere (King, 2003); in fact, Erik Erikson (1968) thought religion was uniquely positioned to be an excellent source of identity and life meaning.

Perceptions of Religion as a Means for Character Development

Finally, religion was viewed by participants as an aid in character development. Many participants perceived that religion had influenced them to be more honest, forgiving, and grateful. Some responses, like "helped me to forgive," indicated that being religious was perceived to impact a specific attribute. Other responses, such as "I tend to be a very honest person" and "Instilled in me the desire for a good education" indicates that some participants perceived religion to influence them more holistically as a person. This was further expressed when participants responded that being religious led them to be "a better person." Hence, it seems many perceived religion not merely to teach the value of specific virtues, but to help people develop those virtues. As noted earlier, for some people religion and morality are intertwined (Frimer & Walker, 2008; Walker et al., 1995), and for many it can aid in facilitating moral development (Walker & Reimer, 2006). Even more, religiousness is predictive of virtuous living; more religious people tend to exhibit higher levels of a wide range of positive personality traits, such as forgiveness, gratitude, hope, humility, and self-control (Plante, 2012).

Perceived Negative Influences of Religion

It would be inaccurate to assume that all forms of religion and religiousness have a positive influence on all people in all circumstances. While the bulk of participants perceived positive outcomes of religiousness, and most prior research on outcomes of religiousness would concur, there are some forms of religion and ways of being religious that may lead to negative outcomes for some people in specific circumstances. For instance, a few of our participants noted that religion made them feel guilty, and guilt is a form of negative self-evaluative affect. However, as opposed to shame, guilt can often motivate adaptive actions such as personal improvement (Gilliland, South, Carpenter, & Hardy, 2011). Thus, while some people perceived this outcome negatively, it may actually be to their benefit in the end. Other participants felt religion was overly constraining. Indeed, religiousness may sometimes lead to identity foreclosure, which is acceptance of a particular readily available identity without exploring identity options (i.e., children of religious parents become religious just because that is what their parents did; Hardy, Pratt, et al., 2011). Nevertheless, such constrained options can become meaningful and self-defining (Layton et al., 2012; Luyckx, Goossens, & soenens, 2006). Lastly, some participants reported negative encounters with religious people, particularly religious leaders. Such negative perceptions of religious individuals may stem from a fixed mindset regarding personality wherein people who have made certain mistakes are inherently bad (Dweck, 2006).

Adolescent and Parent Similarities

In addition to the themes that arose in this study, another significant finding was the relationship between adolescent and parent responses. For four of the six shared categories, (Interpersonal Relationships, Religious Values and Practices, Character Development, and Spiritual Connections), there were significant correlations between adolescent and parent responses. This suggests adolescents and parents often perceive religion to impact their lives in the same way. Because our survey question was open-ended, it is surprising that such similarities occurred. This is even more surprising when one considers that our results showed that ethnicity, gender, and religious affiliation were not related to the type of response that a participant gave. When this is taken into consideration, it seems possible to suggest that family contexts or parent-child relationships may play an important role in how people perceive religion to impact their lives. This would be consistent with research demonstrating that adolescents and parents often share more similarities than differences in their religious behaviors (smith & Denton, 2005).

Limitations

This study had a number of limitations. For one, participants were interviewed through an online questionnaire with a limited amount of space for responses. This prevented us from being able to ask follow-up questions. However, perhaps inviting "short answer" responses required people to report only the most salient ways religion influenced them. Further, because our data were self-reported and cross-sectional, causality cannot be inferred. While participants perceived religion to impact their relationships, life decisions, and personal development, it is also possible that people who care about those things are more likely to seek out religion.

Future Directions

A goal of the present study was to be able to gauge the adequacy and accuracy of current literature of outcomes of religiousness. As can be seen above, there was a high degree of correspondence. To our knowledge, none of the themes that emerged from our participants' responses pointed to outcomes of religiousness that are not to some extent supported by existing research, including the Negative theme. Nevertheless, the relative emphasis in the field on certain outcomes of religiousness may not align with participant perceptions. In particular, our participants focused heavily on relational outcomes, whereas such outcomes are not prominent in the literature. For example, although there is work showing how religion impacts how we help or hurt others (Hardy et al., 2012), we know less about the effects of religion on relationship quality. Future work could examine specific religious teachings about relationships and how internalization of those teachings in turn predicts behaviors and relationships. In line with this, one study showed that prosocial values mediated relations between religiousness and prosocial behavior (Hardy & Carlo, 2005). In fact, perhaps more commonly studied outcomes of religiousness (e.g., health outcomes), are mediated by relationship quality, as we already know relationship quality predicts health (Holt-Lunstad, Uchino, Smith, & Hicks, 2007).

Conclusion

Overall, we feel this study can be an important addition to the existing body of literature on the influence of religion. It is one of the first to explore lay perceptions of religious influence. By using qualitative, grounded-theory methods, we were able to better understand how people perceive religion to influence their relationships, decision-making, and personal characteristics. The present results help triangulate on existing research in the field by demonstrating that empirically established outcomes of religiousness are indeed perceived as such by the individuals themselves. Still, more work is needed on the role of religion in improving relationships. Lastly, we hope these categories of influence can help researchers to better organize, understand, and discuss the many documented benefits of religiousness.

Carrolyn A. McMurdie

David C. Dollahite

Sam A. Hardy

Brigham Young University

This research was funded by the Religious Studies Center and the College of Family, Home, and Social Sciences at Brigham Young University. The authors would like to thank Spencer Anderson and Ryan Woodbury for help collecting the data, and Justin Christensen and Allison Anderson for assistance coding the data. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Dr. Sam A. Hardy, Department of Psychology, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602 or email sam_hardy@byu.edu.

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Authors

Carrolyn A. McMurdie (Bachelor's in Psychology, Brigham Young University) is a recent graduate of Brigham Young University. She plans to pursue a graduate degree in family psychology and hopes to emphasize in research on forgiveness in families.

David C. Dollahite (Ph.D. in Family Studies, University of Minnesota) is Professor of Family Life at Brigham Young University School of Family Life. He has been a visiting scholar at Stanford University Center on Adolescence. He is co-director, with Loren D. Marks, of the American Families of Faith project. His interests include religion and family life, LDS marriage and family life, and religious development and identity of youth.

Sam A. Hardy (Ph.D. in Developmental Psychology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln) is Assistant Professor in the Department of Psychology at Brigham Young University. His research overlaps developmental and personality psychology, with an emphasis on the ways in which morality, identity, and religiosity develop, interrelate, and motivate action.

Table 1

Axial and sublevel codes for adolescent responses

Axial Code       Sublevel Categories

Interpersonal    Charity, Family, Love,
Relationships    Social Habits, View of
                 Others

Religious        Abstinence, Attendance
Values and       at Worship Services,
Practices        Decision Making, Right
                 from Wrong

Character        Better Person,
Development      Education, Forgiveness,
                 Gratitude, Honesty

Spiritual        Faith, Prayer,
Connections      Relationship with Deity

Perspective      Life Perspective, Sense
                 of Purpose, View of Self

Peace of         Happiness, Overcome
Mind             Trials, Peace/Consola-
                 tion, Salvation

                                                     Number of
Axial Code       Example responses                   Responses

Interpersonal    "Taught me to love"                    274
Relationships    "Given me new friends"
                 "Showed me that all people
                 have good in them"

Religious        "Kept me from drinking                 143
Values and       alcohol; abstinence"
Practices        "Go to church"
                 "Helps me know right
                 from wrong"

Character        "It has made me a better person"       132
Development      "I have more of a drive for
                 my education"
                 "Keeps me honest"

Spiritual        "Give me faith; it makes               95
Connections      me believe "
                 "I pray; I get to talk to Jesus"
                 "It has made me closer to God"

Perspective      "Changed my outlook"                   90
                 "I feel like I have a purpose
                 in life"
                 "It makes me feel better
                 about myself"

Peace of         "Makes me happy"                       65
Mind             "Given me peace in the
                 circumstance of life"
                 "Saved me from eternal hell;
                 I am saved"

Table 2

Axial and sublevel codes for parent responses

Axial Code       Sublevel Categories

Interpersonal    Charity, Social Habits,
Relationships    View of Others

Religious        Decisions/Choices,
Values and       Guidance/Direction, Moral
Practices        Conduct

Peace of         Happiness, Overcome
Mind             Trials,
                 Peace/Consolation,
                 Salvation

Character        Better person,
Development      Forgiveness, Gratitude,
                 Honesty/Integrity

Family           Child Rearing, Marriage,
(Overall)        Family

Spiritual        Faith, Relationship with
Connections      Deity, Spiritually

Perspective      Focus/Purpose, Hope,
                 Life Perspective, View
                 of Self

                                                     Number of
Axial Code       Example responses                   Responses

Interpersonal    "Church family; provides               142
Relationships    community"
                 "I want to see the good
                 in others"

Religious        "It guides me in my day to             105
Values and       day life"
Practices        "Keeping me from doing wrong"

Peace of         "Helped me through tough times"        94
Mind             "Given me peace in the
                 circumstances of life"
                 "Saved me from hell"

Character        "Helps me be a better person"          92
Development      "Showing gratitude"
                 "I tend to be very honest"

Family           "Helping me to raise                   83
(Overall)        respectful, kind children"
                 "Made me a better spouse"
                 "Brings family together"

Spiritual        "Have a stronger faith in God"         80
Connections      "Brought me closer to God"
                 "Stronger spiritually"

Perspective      "Keeps me focused; It gives            74
                 purpose"
                 "Have a better outlook on life"
                 "Helps me define who I am"