Leadership in the 21st century: the effect of emotional intelligence.

Pinos, Victor ; Twigg, Nicholas W. ; Parayitam, Satyanarayana 等

ABSTRACT

We developed a model in which transformational leadership mediated between emotional intelligence and workplace performance. This paper states the effect of emotional intelligence on transformational leadership style in the 21st century. It is proposed that the emotional intelligence concepts of self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship management contribute to enhance a leader's sense of self and others in order to accomplish organization's goals. Transformational leadership characteristics are also reviewed to understand how leaders can aim their efforts towards specific objectives. Moreover, a leaders and managers' overview in the current millennium is also included in this paper to obtain links between transformational leadership and emotional intelligence. A discussion of research issues and future direction is also reviewed for new analyses, as well as conclusions.

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this paper is to propose relationships between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership. In the current millennium, companies need leaders who are able to operate in multicultural environments, are aware of global marketing issues, and recognize the need for diversity because these will allow organizations to remain competitive and survive in multicultural environments (Pool & Cotton, 2004). Leaders around the world need to consider personal, social, business, and cultural aspects of global literacy (Rosen & Digh, 2001) as well as social literacy issues such as, trust, listening, constructive impatience, connective teaching, and collaborative individualism (Pool & Cotton, 2004). In addition, Rosen and Digh (2001) state that business literacy must include, among other skills, the ability to create leaders, manage difficult situations, and be a real link between leaders and followers. In short, global literacy and social literacy relate to emotional intelligence through motivation, adeptness in relationships, and self regulation of emotions.

Burns (1978) first proposed that transformational leaders demonstrate high levels of moral conduct, ethical conduct, self-sacrifice, determination, and far-sightedness. Transformational leadership behaviors consist of four dimensions: idealized influence (TLii), individualized consideration (TLic), inspirational motivation (TLim), and intellectual stimulation (TLis). Transformational leaders give individualized consideration through developing and mentoring followers (Bass & Avolio, 1994). They provide inspirational motivation (TLim) by giving meaning to work, encouraging pro-social behavior, and emphasizing social goals instead of individual goals. They also promote intellectual stimulation (TLis) by encouraging innovation and creativity in approaching old situations in new ways. Transformational leadership is based on the perception of subordinates, therefore the more that subordinates feel that the leader is a transformational type, the more that the leader's vision is ingrained in followers. Emotional intelligence plays a crucial role here. Leaders with high EI help organizations create and maintain competitive advantage through increased performance, enhanced innovation, effective use of time and resources, restored trust, teamwork, and motivation (Goleman, 2000) Transformational leadership theory provides a model where leaders can develop their skills to coach, mentor, and facilitate in the workplace in addition to the traditional leadership functions of planning, directing, organizing, and controlling.

Emotional intelligence (EI) is defined as one's ability to manage and monitor one's own emotions; recognize different types of emotions in others; distinguish the difference between one's emotions and those of others; and possess the ability to direct information towards one's decision making actions (Mayer & Salovey, 1993). In fact, EI has been identified as a real measure for distinguishing superior leadership skills and abilities (Pool & Cotton, 2004), and in recent years has become an important topic in social and organizational science (Fineman, 1993; Mayer & Salovey, 1997). Moreover, the influence of emotional intelligence on popular culture and the academic community has been rapidly growing (Emmerling & Goleman, 2003). Therefore, the study of EI has stimulated a great number of research initiatives under a wide range of psychological patterns that have created a gap between what we know and what we need to know (Emmerling & Goleman, 2003). In the same way, emotional intelligence has caught the attention of business leaders and scholars (Goleman, Boyatzis, and McKee, 2002); and its concepts are within an area of interest for executive development consultants (Connor & Mackenzie-Smith, 2003). While technical skills and core competencies are essential for sustainable competitive advantage, the ability to outperform other organizations largely depends on how employees manage their relationships with others. In other words, emotional intelligence helps an organization commit to a basic strategy, build relationships inside and outside that offer competitive advantage, promote innovation and risk taking, provide a platform to shared learning, maintain balance between the human and financial side of the company's agenda, and develop open communication and trust-building among employees and leaders. Research suggests that leaders possessing EI create a work climate that further develops EI at the subordinate level (Yammarino & Atwater, 1997). Although some researchers point out that EI helps in building a successful organization, to date very little has been done to explain the mechanism through which EI increases work-place effectiveness. More precisely, EI is proposed as an antecedent of transformational leadership behaviors. EI enhances workplace performance by enhancing a leader's transformational leadership behaviors.

The aim of this paper is to provide a theoretical model that enables us to understand how EI relates to leadership. We first present a short background of EI and a definition of EI. Second, we discuss social information processing theory and goal setting theories in their relevance to EI and workplace effectiveness. The implications for future research are discussed in the final section.

LEADERS AND MANAGERS IN THE CURRENT MILLENNIUM

Leaders and managers are aware that the current interest in emotional intelligence is its potential utility in forecasting a range of criterion among different populations (Emmerling & Goleman, 2003). In the same way, many authors have debated the legitimacy of the emotional intelligence construct. Lanser (2000) refers in his article to EI as how people who use its principles find a different way of being smart, allowing leaders to cooperate with followers within circles of influence. Moreover, the predictive validity of emotional intelligence will likely depend on the context, criterion of interest, and specific theory used. For instance, traditional measures of intelligence have not been able to perform in accurate ways for a large portion of the variance in work performance and career success (Emmerling & Goleman, 2003).

Despite the importance of EI, psychological issues related with EI have led to a great deal of controversy and debate among people who research and practice principles associated with emotional intelligence. As goes with any emerging topic, such debate is an inherent part of any process of theory development and scientific discovery (Emmerling & Goleman, 2003). Researchers have begun to acknowledge the importance of EI in organizational behavior and human relations research; however, there has been very little empirical work in analyzing EI and its effects on workplace issues such as performance, job satisfaction and leadership issues (Rozell, Pettijohn, & Parker, 2002). Thus, researchers have paid little attention to how EI of leaders enhance work place effectiveness. Figure 1 presents a proposed framework of EI and work place effectiveness.

[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]

TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP CHARACTERISTICS

From a general point of view, leadership is defined as the art, act, or function of going before or showing the way. In fact, the concept of guiding and stimulating direction is associated with leadership (Stanley, 2004). Therefore, leaders must understand the current reality. "Leaders size up the current situation as it really is, not as it used to be or as they would like it to be" (Tichy & Cohen, 1997). However, effective leadership requires us to know how well we are doing, thereby, determining a vision for the future constitutes a strategic thinking to develop the ability to focus on external factors and the people served (Stanley, 2004). In the same way, building a strong team will also constitute a crucial part in any organization. Strong leaders and managers know how to encourage strong candidates to apply for specific positions in the firm (Stanley, 2004). Moreover, Crane (2001) states that coaching skills are also a prerequisite for success and defines transformational coaching as "the art of assisting people to enhance their effectiveness, in a way they feel helped." Therefore, one of the most important skills required for successful coaching is an accurate use of language and word choices. In the same way, Boverie and Kroth (2001) suggest that there are three keys to creating passion in the workplace and thereby, stimulating transformational leadership. These are love of work, meaningful work, and a nurturing workplace.

Love of work

If employees and team members enjoy their jobs, they will become most productive. Teammates should be enthusiastic in creating a positive atmosphere towards work. Moreover, it is widely known that people do well when they are placed in jobs for which they are well-suited.

Meaningful work

Employees and team members are aware about the internal communication's importance because potential supporters need to hear about all ups und downs institutions do. It just helps to remind employees why they work so hard. Boverie and Kroth (2001) propose that a nurturing workplace is a key to creating a caring, understanding, and flexible environment; a concern for the work, caring for and being considerate of coworkers, respecting employees' ideas, treating employees and colleagues as a viable force, and having compassion for human beings. Furthermore, communicating the organization's vision must be a very important issue for leaders and managers because employees must know what the organization's objectives are to become part in the process to accomplish the company's goals (Stanley, 2004). Therefore, resource development professionals and transformational leaders work to understand their employees' strengths and weaknesses to improve communication ways. In the same way, inspiring others to work together to create the new vision constitutes the framework to recruit and retain strong performers (Stanley, 2004). For instance, new workers will always tend to imitate former workers who perform the work in better ways and have better salaries and benefits; not only because it means a secure job, but also because they get inspiration from those outstanding workers and have already understood the company's vision.

In addition, evaluating and monitoring progress helps to measure the level of work and level of goal accomplished (Stanley, 2004). But there are limits to evaluation tools. "No form can accurately capture the warmth experienced when dealing with another person. However, the outcome of such encounters can be measured. People who are kind and gracious in their dealings with their constituents garner more support for their organization than those who never learned how to relate well with other people" (Weinstein, 2002, pp. 319-320). Finally, celebrating victory means that all of the company's objectives were accomplished and after all the hard work, nothing can compare to the exuberance and joy of victory (Stanley, 2004). Therefore, transformational leaders not only have to maintain the winner teamwork' success, but also to encourage new goals in order to create a competitive environment within the organization (Weinstein, 2002). Some research is directed at associating the transformational / charismatic leadership style of a CEO with some aspects of emotional intelligence. For instance, research by Sosik and Megerian (1999) suggests that some aspects of emotional intelligence (self-awareness) moderated the relationship between transformational leadership style and managerial performance. The impact of an emotionally intelligent CEO is expected to cascade down to the lower rungs through the CEO's charisma

The proposed model identifies the factors that build emotional intelligence and highlights the ways that transformational leadership behaviors promote organizations to become more open to change and to be more emotionally intelligent.

TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

Transformational leaders have been described as individuals who increase interest among followers to generate increased confidence, creating an adequate environment in order to accomplish goals (Gardner & Stough, 2002). In fact, transformational leaders are looking for new opportunities all the time because effectiveness must be common language among their followers. Transformational leadership is comprised of the following dimensions: idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration (Bass, 1985). Moreover, these leaders are willing to demonstrate listening skills to understand people's demands related to the work environment, and to propose real solutions to both parties (Rosen & Digh, 2001).

Moreover, Barling et al. (2000) conducted research with 49 managers to evaluate the relationship between leaders likely to use transformational behaviors and who were high in emotional intelligence. As a conclusion, researchers found out that transformational leaders were directly related with followers' concerns, thereby, better able to understand personal issues. In the same way, using the Swinburne University Emotional Intelligence Test (SUEIT), Gardner and Stough (2002) tested 110 senior level managers. The results supported a strong relationship between EI and the transformational leadership style. On the other hand, a negative relationship was found between EI and both laissez-faire leaders and transactional leaders because these leaders were found to be less willing to understand their own personalities and those of others who work in the same place (Gardner & Stough, 2002).

[FIGURE 2 OMITTED]

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

Emotional Intelligence is a multifaceted construct (Goleman, 2002; Thorndike, 1920) consisting of self-awareness, self-management, social awareness and relationship management (Goleman et al, 2002). Therefore, possessing high levels of EI permits individuals have a closer understanding of people and their surroundings (Pool & Cotton, 2004).

Wong and Law (2002) seem to agree that emotional labor will always constitute the level of interest of people to achieve their personal goals. For instance, higher EI is required in circumstances where emotional labor is more intense (Wong & Law, 2002), such as with advanced counseling training and development (Barchard, 2003). However, some authors separate abilities related to cognitive intelligence from abilities related to traits, thereby, competencies related to emotional intelligence remains a complex one; all definitions of EI seem to represent a combination of cognitive and emotional abilities (Cherniss, 2001). Mayer and Salovey (1997) state that to qualify as an actual intelligence several criteria must be met. First, any intelligence must reflect actual mental performance rather than preferred behavior patterns, self-esteem, or other specific traits. Second, the level of intelligence under study should describe a set of related abilities able to show a different pattern of intelligence; and third, intelligence should develop with age.

Self-Awareness

Self-awareness is the ability to understand what one is feeling and how to direct those feelings (Gardner & Stough, 2002). Self-awareness also includes being aware of one's strengths and limitations in determined circumstances, consequently, self awareness is a main point and central competency of emotional intelligence (Goleman et al, 2002). In fact, being aware of one's strengths and limitations creates a real backbone for controlling emotions, and becoming a better motivator in any area (Pool & Cotton, 2004). The self-awareness component of EI is important in that it may have a profound impact on behavioral self-management and on desirable outcomes. Self-awareness is comprised of three elements: emotional awareness, accurate self-assessment, and self-confidence. Emotional self-awareness is the ability to recognize one's emotions and their effects. People who are high in this construct understand which emotions they are feeling and why; realize the links between their feelings and what they think, do, and say; recognize how their feelings affect their performance; and have a guiding awareness of values and goals (Goleman, 1995). Accurate self-assessment is necessary for an individual to have knowledge of his/her own strengths and limitations. Self-assessment requires openness to candid feedback, new perspectives, continuous learning, and self-development. People with a high degree of emotional self-awareness exhibit a sense of humor and perspective about themselves. Self-awareness also includes self-confidence, which speaks about self-worth and capabilities. Individuals with high self-confidence can express their feelings, opinions, and viewpoints openly and unhesitatingly. Further, research has demonstrated that self-confident people are more decisive, and are able to make sound decisions (Phillips & Gully, 1997).

Self-awareness enables a leader to look at what the ideal situation may be without becoming concerned with their ego's and fantasizes. A leader with strong self-awareness feels fulfilled in his/her own right and is not intimidated by others successes. Followers are allowed, encouraged even, to take credit and reap the honors of success. Therefore, the leader invokes a strong emotional bond from the followers that enhances the leader's charisma (Conger & Kanungo, 1998). Charisma is a major contributor to a transformational leader's idealized influence (Bass, 1985). Based on the above, the following is proposed:

Proposition 1: Self-awareness is positively related to the idealized influence dimension of transformational leadership behaviors (Tlii).

Self-Management

Self-management is the ability to use knowledge of self to manage and influence one's own emotions (Goleman, et al, 2002). Gaining a greater ability to manage self will increase self-control, trustworthiness, conscientiousness, motivation, adaptability, and innovation (Rozell, Pettijohn, & Parker, 2001). Moreover, people with high self-management will make more informed decisions because they will not be controlled by their emotions, but rather control their emotions (Goleman et al, 2002). Transformational leadership literature amply demonstrates that self-confidence is one of the personality characteristics of transformational leaders who strive for changing the status quo (Howell & Higgins, 1990; Wofford, Goodwin, & Whittington, 1998). Maintaining self-control in tense situations shows followers that the leader can be trusted to make rational decisions to benefit the organization and its members. In turn, trust builds affective commitment from followers to the organization and the leader (Nyhan & Marlowe, 1997).

Another important ingredient of emotional intelligence is self-motivation. Self-motivation primarily consists of achievement drive, commitment, initiative, and optimism. The achievement drive of individuals is visible in their striving to improve or meet higher standards of excellence. Individuals with high achievement drive are result-oriented; as such, they set challenging goals, take calculated risks, pursue information to reduce uncertainty and find ways to do better, and learn how to improve their performance (Campion & McClelland, 1991). Transformational leaders actively seek out opportunities to promote the organizations agenda (Bass, 1985).

Employee commitment is another component of self-motivation. Transformational leaders help members to find a sense of purpose in the organization's mission. Highly committed individuals seek out opportunities to fulfill organizational goals, and indoctrinate the group's core values in decision making (Levinson, 2003). Thus, commitment is concerned with the aligning individual goals with group and organizational goals. The initiative of individuals is represented by their readiness to act on available opportunities. Employees with high initiative seize opportunities and pursue goals beyond what is required or expected of them. Often, they cut through bureaucratic red tape and become flexible in bending rules to get the job done. Finally, optimism is concerned with persistence in pursuing goals despite setbacks and obstacles. Persistence is a motivational mechanism for pursuing goals (Locke et al., 1981). Optimistic individuals operate from the "hope of success" rather than the "fear of failure," and perceive setbacks as manageable circumstances rather than personal flaws. In summary, self-management emphasizes the "discovery of appropriate task strategies" (Locke & Latham, 1991: 234), and facilitates acquisition and maintenance of complex skills for enhancing interpersonal communication (Gist, Stevens & Bavetta, 1990). As a leader is goal directed, self-motivation is important in achieving goals. Based on the above, the following are proposed:

Proposition 2a: Self-management is positively related to the idealized influence dimension of transformational leadership behaviors (Tlii).

Proposition 2b: Self-management is positively related to the individualized consideration dimension of transformational leadership behaviors (Tlic).

Social-Awareness

The social-awareness dimension of EI states that a heightened state of awareness in leaders is needed to understand both the situation and the followers' level of comprehension (Hersey, Blanchard, & Johnson, 1996). Once the leader understands his/her own vision and values for the organization, they need to convey the vision and values to the other members (Goleman et al, 2002). At the heart of social awareness is empathy. A major component of transformational leadership behaviors is the ability to emphasize with followers (Bass, 1995). Empathetic leaders can sense when the organizational vision and personal values are being received by other individuals. By understanding how individuals are receiving and responding to the leaders' messages, the leaders can change their behaviors to encourage and support followers' positive behaviors. The leader can put forth an understanding and supportive front to the follower to mitigate the follower's actions. For example, the leader will be able to approach the follower in order to assure them that everything is all right; therefore, there is no need to get too excited or overwrought about some situation. Alternatively, a leader that lacks empathy may be perceived as uncaring or uninterested to the needs of the follower.

The socially aware leader can also relate to diverse cultures in the workplace. Individuals of different cultural, ethnic, political, and religious orientations may not be able to communicate their needs and desires verbally. The socially aware leader can recognize the needs of others and respond accordingly. When the others are customers or suppliers, the leader exhibits a greater service or customer orientation. Within the organization, the leader with greater empathy can recognize and respond to networks that can be used to enhance corporate goals and values. The empathetic leader also recognizes the tacit relationships of members and can respond accordingly (Goleman et al, 2002). A socially aware leader will exhibit more empathy towards followers, therefore we propose that:

Proposition 3: Social awareness is positively related to the individualized consideration dimension of transformational leadership behaviors (Tlic).

Relationship Management

Another important component of EI is relationship management. Relationship-management includes interpersonal and social skills, such as providing inspiration, having influence, possessing the abilities to develop others, acting as a catalyst for change, managing conflict, and encouraging teamwork and collaboration (Rozell et al, 2001). Just as self-awareness is related to the intrapersonal intelligence of an individual, empathy and handling relationships are related to interpersonal intelligence. As pointed out previously, intra-personal and inter-personal intelligence are essentially two dimensions of social intelligence. Relationship management deals with handling or managing emotions in others, and therefore requires social competence and social skills on the part of individuals (Goleman et al. 2002). Transformational leaders are highly skilled in relationship management and strive to develop others while creating synergy in workgroups. Sometimes relationship management calls for using 'influence', i.e. wielding effective tactics for persuasion. For example, leaders may use complex strategies such as indirect influence to build consensus and support, or orchestrate dramatic events to make a point effectively (Goleman, 1995). Followers that perceive that they are being developed to be more involved with the organization may develop a felt obligation to the organization and be motivated to perform at higher levels than they were before being included in the organization structures. Relationship management, when applied to leadership studies, promotes positive affect in followers, resulting in broader levels of thinking and enhanced capacity for self-learning (Bass, 1998; Greenspan, 1989).

Often leaders use relationship management to negotiate and resolve disagreements and to orchestrate win-win solutions. They register emotional cues in attuning their message, seek mutual understanding, welcome information sharing, and deal with difficult issues tactfully. One outstanding feature of good relationship managers is that they are receptive to both bad and good news. Because they are effective in sending clear and convincing messages, they provide goal clarity and clear communication. Goal clarity and clear communication change an individual's attitude toward work. This is especially important to creating an intellectually stimulated atmosphere in the workplace. For example, a transformational leader encourages creativity and innovative solutions from followers. Innovative and creative solutions that challenge the status quo are inherently unstable. Followers may not feel comfortable in trying new procedures or processes, therefore having a leader that seems to understand their dilemma and addresses the possible outcomes with them gives them confidence in their abilities. Research has demonstrated that the individual's predisposition towards effectively handling interpersonal relationships makes him/her use emotionally expressive language and non-verbal cues associated with transformational leadership (Salovey & Sluyter, 1997). Social intelligence theory is based on the concept that individuals have an ability to be creative and imaginative (BarOn & Parker, 2000). The transformational leader stimulates followers to be creative and innovative in finding solutions to everyday problems (Bass, 1985)

The transformational leader seeks to inspire followers through creating collaborative networks and developing followers to be creative and innovative. The leader encourages followers to challenge the old conventional ways of doing business and take up creative and innovative ideas (Conger & Kanungo, 1998). Based on the above arguments, the following are proposed:

Proposition 4a: Relationship management is positively related to the inspirational motivation dimension of transformational leadership behaviors (Tlim).

Proposition 4b: Relationship management is positively related to the intellectual stimulation dimension of transformational leadership behaviors (Tlis).

DISCUSSION OF RESEARCH ISSUES AND FUTURE DIRECTION

This paper presents a conceptual model of emotional intelligence, explaining how a set of skills hypothesized to contribute to the accurate appraisal and expression of emotion in oneself and in others, would increase the workplace effectiveness of an employee through it's effect on emotional stress and personal attitudes towards work. Although traditionally job satisfaction and commitment were considered as attitudes of employees at work, in the present model we tried to show the change in attitudes as a result of goal clarity and interpersonal communication. Thirdly, there could be some moderating variables influencing the impact of emotional intelligence. The type of organizational unit, age, gender differences, educational background, leader member exchange quality, work-family conflicts, and organizational support programs influencing the goal clarity and interpersonal communication could all influence both stress and the personal attitudes of employees at work. Finally, the present model has some practical implications for organizations. Recognizing the importance of emotional intelligence, many organizations are providing training programs referred to as emotional competence training. Goleman (1995) has explicitly provided some useful guidelines for effective social and emotional learning in a phase-wise analysis (running from preparation phase, training phase, transfer and maintenance phase, and evaluation phase) based on the assumption that it is possible to help people of any age to become more emotionally intelligent at work. Just as there is some skepticism that emotional competencies are the result of habits learned early in life (DeBono & Snyder, 1995) there is controversy about whether emotional competence can be taught or learned through training. Goleman (1995) argues that one must unlearn old habits and then develop new ones. This may sound like a bitter pill to swallow, but emotional learning inevitably involves ways of thinking and acting that are central to an individual's identity.

CONCLUSIONS

There have been several theories associated with the emotional intelligence's knowledge, each theory represents a unique set of constructs that represents the theoretical orientation and context in which authors have developed their theory, all have a common desire to understand and measure the skills related to recognizing and regulating emotions in ourselves and others (Goleman, 2001). Ciarrochi, Chan, and Caputi (2000) state that although definitions may vary within the field of emotional intelligence, they will become complementary rather than contradictory. They also agree that all these theories related within the field of EI seek to understand how human beings perceive, comprehend, and work with emotions in order to achieve goals.

Furthermore, emotional intelligence is gaining legitimacy due to studies that support its theories as a valid construct. In fact, in the current millennium there will exist a very competitive environment not only within boundaries but also in a global market. Investigators are eager to obtain answers to how leaders can be more successful in an ever changing business environment. Moreover, leaders who want to improve their knowledge of EI must begin with an accurate analysis of one's self awareness because it constitutes the main basis that supports EI theories. Therefore, executive coaches have found success in those organizations that have seen in EI the back bone in total organization (Sohmer, 2000).

In short, organizations that choose EI as a real framework to achieve goals will get returns on their investment. The more comprehensive skill sets a leader uses, the better environment to work will be created, thereby, benefits will also appear as a real consequence. Employees not only will be happy to share their own emotions, but also to contribute their best effort to accomplish the company's objectives. The interest in emotional intelligence has been escalating since 1990. We have attempted to provide a conceptual model linking the ingredients of emotional intelligence, social information processing, and goal setting theories in influencing the work place effectiveness outcomes. Providing such linkages is essential if the field is to integrate knowledge across topical areas of organizational behavior and human relations.

Moreover, we strongly believe that this effort can only succeed if theorists and researchers are willing to test notions that include constructs of emotional intelligence at the individual, group, and organizational level. We urge the researchers not to discard the concept of emotional intelligence as a management fashion or fad (Abrahamson, 1996). Since the empirical work in the field of emotional intelligence is in the embryonic stage, many gray areas must be explored before additional models are proposed or present models are extended. The present paper is a modest move in the direction of initiating a conceptual platform for studying the process of how emotional intelligence affects organizations. The model also contrasts methods of promoting emotional intelligence in organizations, i.e. the development of emotional intelligence through training programs versus the selection of very emotionally intelligent organizational leaders who model emotional competence and continue to implement a similar selection process vertically downwards.

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Victor Pinos, McNeese State University

Nicholas W. Twigg, McNeese State University

Satyanarayana Parayitam, McNeese State University

Bradley J. Olson, University of Lethbridge