Initiating and sustaining learning about literacy and language across the curriculum within secondary schools.

Fenwick, Lisl

Introduction

Success within secondary schooling depends partly on a student's capacity to understand and use the formal academic language requirements of specific subjects. Students from socio-economic and family backgrounds that support the language capacities relevant to academic learning contexts will generally be able to access the curriculum and succeed (Teese & Polesel, 2003, pp. 29, 109-110, 136, 166; Schleppegrell, Greer & Taylor, 2008; Macken & Slade, 1993, pp.209-210). Within secondary schooling, there is an emphasis on formal language and factual texts. In addition, each subject area contains certain kinds of texts and language that are favoured and valued (Wray, 2001; Goodwyn & Findlay, 2003). The texts and language that are emphasised within secondary schooling relate to ways of organising and expressing knowledge beyond schooling (Cope & Kalantzis, 1993, pp. 80-81; Christie, p. 155). For example, students within the history classroom learn how to present logical and reasoned extended arguments, using primary and secondary sources to substantiate opinions and conclusions. Within science subjects, students learn how to write about inquiry approaches and use the technical, formal and impersonal language valued within the scientific community. A subject about work skills usually provides students with advice on letters of application and curriculum vitae.

Despite the complex literacy demands of secondary schooling, most teachers working in this context in the United Kingdom would not routinely incorporate explicit literacy teaching into their lessons (Lewis & Wray, 1999; Lewis & Wray, 2000, p. 7). For the majority of teachers within Australia, literacy and language teaching has not been part of their education and many feel that they do not have the knowledge and skills required to teach literacy and language explicitly (Harper & Rennie, 2009; Hammond 2008; Hammond & Macken-Horarik, 2001). Often teachers assume that by the time students have reached secondary schooling they possess the knowledge and skills about literacy and language that are required to access the curriculum or students will acquire appropriate literacy practices without explicit teaching (Wyatt-Smith & Cumming, 2003).

The need for professional development in literacy and language for teachers has been identified within England and Australia. However, provision of professional development alone will not necessarily result in improved student outcomes. Louise Poulson and Elias Avramidis (2003) argue that the professional learning offered must be of a high quality and challenge the participants to try both new content and teaching strategies. In addition, the learning will only be sustained and applied within classrooms if there is ongoing support and opportunities for reflection within a collaborative culture.

The project begun at the high school in Adelaide in 2005 aimed to build the capacity of teachers to support student language and literacy development within the context of specific subjects. A student survey conducted in 2004 revealed that 45.4% of English as a Second Language (ESL) learners did not feel that they gained enough literacy support within mainstream classes. In 2005, 63% of the student population was identified as being from non-English speaking backgrounds. While the needs of ESL students had been identified, the literacy project that began in 2005 aimed to support all students in the school community to gain the literacy skills and understandings required to access the secondary curriculum successfully. The ESL Coordinator initiated the project and searched for a professional learning program that could help teachers and students to identify the literacy and language expectations of assessment tasks, as well as providing teachers with strategies to support student learning about the language and texts of specific discipline areas. The course Language and Literacy: Classroom applications of functional grammar met the needs of the school.

The Language and Literacy course promotes the idea that all texts have a specific social purpose, which influences the language and structural choices made by the author. Texts that fulfil particular social purposes are referred to as genres. The language patterns found within particular genres will function to achieve the social purpose of the text (Cope & Kalantzis, 1993, p. 7). The key ideas found within the course are based largely on Michael Halliday's work concerning the development of a theory of language called systemic functional linguistics. Halliday promoted an approach which emphasises the ways in which language works to achieve meaning within particular contexts (Halliday & Matthiessen, 1993, pp. 3-4). Other scholars, including Jim Martin, Joan Rothery and Frances Christie, began to apply Halliday's work to education and developed genre theory (Cope et al., 1993, pp. 231-232). The adaptation of Martin's work during education projects in NSW produced a teaching and learning cycle, which emphasised modelling, joint construction of text, and, finally, independent construction of genres by students (Cope & Kalantzis, 1993, p. 10). The Language and Literacy course also draws on the work of the Russian literary scholar and psychologist Lev Vygotsky, who argued that students require explicit teaching to develop language and cognitive processes, including complex abstract thought (Van der Veer & Valsiner, 1991, pp. 330-331, 335; Cope & Kalantzis, 1993, pp. 68-69, 71). Within schooling, genre approaches can be used to scaffold student learning, until students can operate independently within the literacy and language expectations of specific subjects and disciplines (Cope & Kalantzis, 1993, pp. 17-18).

The project developed within the school did not aim to teach to students a set range of genres by the end of their schooling. Rather, the professional development and associated activities sought to build the capacity of teachers and students to use the text structures and language relevant to specific subject areas. The Language and Literacy course helped teachers to analyse the literacy demands of assessment tasks and to explore the ways in which language worked to transmit meaning within particular disciplines. The approach used within the school connected strongly with the theoretical understanding that there is a strong relationship between context and text (Cope and Kalantzis, 1993, pp. 7). An understanding of the purpose of a text can help students to use appropriate language and structures, as well as supporting their knowledge about ways of working within disciplines (Callaghan, Knapp & Noble, 1993, pp. 192-193). The teaching of genres as an end in itself, without consideration of context and purpose, can result in superficial learning that is unresponsive to changes within contexts and situations and does not help students to develop conceptual understanding (Cairney, 1992).

Method used at the high school

The project initiated at the school in 2005 aimed to provide teachers with the skills and understandings required to analyse and teach the language and literacy associated with their subject areas. As a result, the school hoped to improve student literacy in all parts of the curriculum, particularly for those students from non-English speaking backgrounds. The ESL Coordinator secured funding from the ESL Innovative Schools' Program run by Curriculum Services within the Department of Education and Children's Services in South Australia. In addition, the Principal of the school agreed to include any extra funds that were required. Most of the funds were used to secure release time for the teachers participating in the project.

Initially, a teacher within each Learning Area volunteered to be part of the project. Over the next six months, they undertook the Language and Literacy course. The course ran during the school day and teachers were released from classes to participate. Readings and activities followed each module. The participants had access to an appointed mentor from the school's ESL Learning Area. The mentoring continued for six months once the participants had completed the formal course, so that they were supported as they implemented strategies with one of their classes. In addition to being mentored by a member of the ESL Learning Area, the participating teachers also gained release time to meet individually with the tutor of the Language and Literacy course and plan ways to incorporate learning about language into their units of work. Additional support also came from an ESL Service Provider, a co-ordinator who provides advice and support for teachers of ESL students across schools within districts.

Targeted training occurred for the teachers from the ESL Learning Area who undertook a mentoring role. The ESL teachers felt that their own knowledge about systemic functional linguistics needed to be updated and they also wanted to know the elements involved in effective mentoring. The tutor for the Language and Literacy course agreed to run a two-day intensive session for the ESL staff. In addition, the ESL Coordinator in the school worked with the Curriculum Services section of the Department of Education and Children's Services to organise a speaker on effective mentoring for the ESL staff.

Following the completion of the course, teachers at the school constructed units of work that incorporated literacy and language content and drew on both backwards and forwards planning techniques. First, they thought about the kind of text that they wanted the students to produce as a final assessment task for the unit. Identifying the cognitive processes associated with the discipline area helped the teachers to define the kind of text that best supported students to demonstrate their understandings and skills. For example, teachers used their specific discipline knowledge to consider whether they wanted students to recount facts, present a line of reasoning or provide multiple perspectives on an issue. Knowledge from the Language and Literacy course then enabled the participants to be explicit about the kind of structure and language that the text required. At the beginning of the unit of work, the teachers asked students to undertake a writing task, which was used to analyse the skills and understandings that students already had, as well as the areas they needed to develop. Teachers developed and modified their unit of work based on their understanding of the skills of the students, as well as their knowledge of the kind of text students were required to create for assessment. The collection of information on student literacy at the beginning of the unit was critical as it also provided opportunities for the teachers to analyse the extent to which their intervention practices had been successful after the unit of work had been taught. Surveys completed by staff and students involved in the project also provided insights into their feelings and attitudes associated with the teaching and learning experience.

The processes and structures put in place to support the project enabled two groups of mainstream staff to undertake the course and apply their learning to specific classroom situations. The first group of teachers engaged in the project from 2005-2006 and the second from 2006-2007. After the two groups of teachers had participated in the project, all Learning Areas made time in meetings for the participants to speak about the course and the ways in which they applied their learning.

Results

Staff and student surveys, as well as analyses of student work, reveal that the project made a significant difference to student outcomes. Students completed surveys at the completion of the unit within 11 of the classes where teachers incorporated literacy and language content into units of work. In total, 128 students completed surveys after completion of the units. Initially, the survey required that students reflect on whether or not the unit of work was a different kind of experience. Student responses to this question varied considerably, but the most common response indicated that students were not used to receiving explicit teaching on the structure and language of the texts required in assessment tasks. In response to the questions 'Was the teaching of this unit of work different from what you are used to? In what way?' Thirty per cent of students who completed surveys made comments which suggested there had been little emphasis in the past on the structure and language of texts. One student reflected that the difference was that the teacher 'clearly explained what needed to be added to a biographical recount. This made it a lot easier to write it.' The survey then required that students list the language features that they had learnt during the unit of work and to comment on whether or not they now felt able to use these language features. Eighty-eight per cent of the students surveyed felt that they now had the capacity to use the language techniques taught during the unit of work. Ninety-two per cent of students who completed the survey reported that they had a good understanding of the requirements of the genre at the end of the unit. One student reflected that 'what teachers want varies' and teaching the requirements of the written assessment task 'allows students to know what this teacher wants'.

The student survey also inquired about student confidence and preferred methods of support for written assessment tasks. Seventy-one per cent of the students who completed surveys felt that they had more confidence in their abilities at the end of the unit of work. Twenty-two per cent felt that their confidence had not improved. Of the 22%, some students felt that they already possessed adequate confidence for the task, while others found the demands of the specific genre overwhelming. One student required to complete an exposition revealed 'I'm only good at narratives and reports'. Many of the students who completed surveys also chose to reflect on the kind of support from teachers that promoted success with written tasks. Their responses to an open and undirected question varied considerably, but five main strategies were identified. A number of the students revealed that they preferred a combination of support strategies to be used.

Surveys completed by teachers participating in the project also revealed positive outcomes. Sixteen of the 18 teachers involved completed the project and 16 teachers filled in surveys at the end of their period of participation. Ninety-four per cent of the participating teachers believed that all students within the class benefited from the teaching of units of work which included literacy and language teaching. One of the teachers reflected, 'With doing this unit all students in the two classes benefited. Many students ... realised with a little thought on their part, explicit teaching, direction, modelling and joint construction they could write very appropriately in the manner required for analytical accounting reports'. Another teacher commented 'Overall the work was better than last year's group. Students seemed more confident.' One teacher reflected 'For most students the progress from the 1st to the 2nd piece of writing is tangible and pleasing.'

The teachers involved also felt that the content and teaching strategies employed during the units of work nurtured the confidence of students with additional needs. Three students with hearing impairments, two students on Negotiated Education Plans for general learning difficulties, one student with vision impairment and approximately 101 English as a Second Language learners participated in the project. Eighty-six per cent of the teachers involved felt that the confidence of students with additional needs grew as a result of the content and teaching methods used during the unit of work.

Involvement in a project such as this helped the teachers to reflect on their professional practice. Ninety-four per cent of the participating teachers expressed ideas on the language content of their units, as well as the teaching and learning strategies employed. The reflections from six teachers in particular contained detail, revealing a deep involvement in the ideas and experiences generated during the project. In response to general questions about teaching strategies, 63% of the participants specifically referred to the teaching and learning cycle within their reflections, commenting that they would incorporate aspects of the cycle into future units of work. Seven of the 16 teachers commented on very specific teaching and learning strategies, such as cloze exercises and a pro forma to construct noun groups, which they felt worked particularly well with students.

The participating teachers also commented on the personal benefits gained from being involved in the project. Fifty-six per cent of the teachers felt that the acquisition of new relevant knowledge about genres and language was the greatest benefit from being involved. Forty-four per cent of the participating teachers highlighted new teaching strategies, including the teaching and learning cycle, as the most important element of the project. One teacher reported that 'the increased confidence and increased literacy skill level for a great number of students' provided the greatest personal reward.

The teachers involved in the project also answered questions about the support mechanisms put in place during their participation, as well as the level of support that they would require to continue to incorporate knowledge about genre and language into their teaching. Forty-four per cent of the teachers felt that it helped to have an ESL mentor during the project. Most of the teachers who felt that their mentor did not help believed that the main problem was the lack of time within a busy school to meet and work together. Thirty-one per cent of the teachers who participated in the project from Learning Areas across the school believed that mentoring by ESL teachers would be important as they continued to incorporate ideas about genre and language into their teaching.

Analyses of student writing occurred at the beginning and end of the units of work. To analyse the texts, the teachers used a pro forma designed by the ESL Learning Area at the school. The pro forma included information about the structures and language of genres and the terms used matched the metalanguage found within the Language and Literacy course. The first examination of student writing occurred for all students in the classes and it enabled the teachers to help decide what literacy elements to focus on within the units of work. At the end of the unit, teachers collected and analysed student work for those individuals most at risk of not succeeding. Many of these students were from non-English speaking backgrounds. The teachers then compared their final piece of writing with the writing undertaken at the beginning of the unit to determine if the intervention strategies succeeded.

Discussion

Initiating and sustaining whole-school approaches to literacy within secondary schools is important if all students are to access the curriculum effectively. The project at the school aimed to build teacher capacity, so that learning about literacy and language occurred within the context of all Learning Areas. Access to new knowledge and theory alone did not result in changed practices within the classroom. Rather, practical strategies, which connected to the theory, needed to be available for teachers to trial within their own learning environments. Only when student outcomes became apparent did the participating teachers become advocates of the approach. A recent project in New Zealand also reported similar findings, stating that secondary school teachers only became more engaged with literacy practices once they had experienced student success as a result of new strategies (Wright, 2007; May, 2007).

The experiences connected to the projects in Adelaide and New Zealand have implications for the initiation of whole-school literacy approaches. Strategies which focus on altering the classroom practices of teachers and combine theory with practice are more likely to change site attitudes and culture. Once shifts in behaviour and attitude occur, other elements of whole-school literacy approaches become important and are supported. The enthusiasm generated by the literacy project at the school allowed for further actions to be sustained. Despite there being no more grants available through the ESL Innovative Schools' Program, another group of teachers undertook the Language and Literacy course and applied their learning in the period 2007-2008.

The project at the school confirmed the need for senior leadership to support literacy initiatives (May & Wright, 2002). The Principal ensured that funds supplemented the grants used to secure staff release time. His belief that staff professional learning required strong support through the provision of time and ongoing mentoring helped to ensure positive attitudes towards the project. Even with the extensive amount of time provided, participating teachers still reported that they required more hours in the day to complete the expectations of the course and to apply their learning. However, without the release time provided to teachers, it is likely that some staff would have left the project and the level of commitment to trialling ideas and strategies would not have been as great.

Successful incorporation of teaching about texts and language across the curriculum requires professional learning that has a focus on both detailed knowledge and teaching strategies. The Language and Literacy course provides in-depth understanding about the way language works within specific contexts, as well as strategies for engaging students. Students appreciate explicit teaching and modelling of the written texts that are associated with assessment within specific subject areas. Many students also benefit from opportunities to apply and discuss the material about texts and language with peers and the teacher. Teaching about literacy and language that involves direct instruction and opportunities for discussion and application provides the greatest level of student support, especially for students with additional needs and those learners who do not enter formal schooling with the extensive cultural capital that is required to succeed.

The learning about literacy and language that occurred at the school was contextualised within school subjects. Teachers and students valued the information and strategies because of the connections made with discipline-specific ways of working and assessment requirements. Through the Language and Literacy course, teachers made connections between cognitive processes, texts and language, which enabled them to support student learning about how knowledge is organised and presented within specific subjects and disciplines. Explicit teaching about texts and language that is connected to discipline content and practices within and beyond secondary schools is a powerful combination for students and teachers.

Deep thinking about the organisation of knowledge, ways of working within disciplines and the associated patterns of texts and language requires extensive professional learning, opportunities for professional discussions and detailed resources. Many of the resources available to secondary school teachers present simplistic forms of text types, with little discussion of context and purpose. Within secondary schools, the texts that students are required to create are often macro-genres, which include features of more than one text type. The teachers within this project found that the assessment tasks involving traditional genres were the easiest to analyse and existing resources could support their planning. Much more work is required to involve secondary school teachers within processes that help to identify the more complex genres associated with their subjects. In addition, further research is required to identify successful pedagogies that provide students with both an ability to use language effectively within specific contexts and conceptual understanding related to disciplines.

Acknowledgements

The author would like to thank all of the educators involved in this project, as well as the students who participated as part of their classes. The views expressed in this article are those of the author and not necessarily those of the Department of Education and Children's Services in South Australia.

References

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Callaghan, M., Knapp, P. & Noble, G. (1993). Genre in Practice. In B. Cope & M. Kalantzis (Eds.), The powers of literacy: A genre approach to teaching writing. London and Washington DC: The Falmer Press.

Christie, F. (1993). Curriculum Genres: Planning for effective teaching. In B. Cope & M. Kalantzis (Eds.), The powers of literacy: A genre approach to teaching writing. London and Washington DC: The Falmer Press.

Cope, B. & Kalantzis, M. (Eds.), (1993). The powers of literacy: A genre approach to teaching writing. London and Washington DC: The Falmer Press.

Cope, B., Kalantzis, M., Kress, G., Martin, J. & Murphy, L. (1993). Bibliographic essay: Developing the theory and practice of genre-based literacy. In B. Cope & M. Kalantzis (Eds.), The powers of literacy: A genre approach to teaching writing. London and Washington DC: The Falmer Press.

Department of Education and Children's Services (DECS) (2004). Language and Literacy: Classroom applications of functional grammar: Participant handbook. Adelaide: DECS Publishing.

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Hammond, J. & Macken-Horarik, M. (2001). Teachers' voices, Teachers' practices: Insider perspectives on literacy education. Australian Journal of Language and Literacy, 24(2), 112-132.

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May, S. (2007). Sustaining effective literacy practices over time in secondary schools: School organisation and change issues. Language and Education, 21(5), 387-405.

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Lisl Fenwick

Australian Catholic University

Table 1: Details about the teacher participants

                                     Number of teachers from
Learning area                        that learning area

Group 1
Science                              1
Languages other than English         3
English                              1
Studies of Society and Environment   2
The Arts                             1 (This teacher completed the
                                       Language and Literacy course
                                       but did not complete the
                                       project as she moved to
                                       another school.)

Technology                           1
Maths                                1
Group 2
Health and Physical Education        2
Studies of Society and Environment   1
English                              2
Languages other than English         1
Journalism                           1
Maths                                1 (This teacher completed the
                                       Language and Literacy Course
                                       but did not participate in the
                                       rest of the project for
                                       reasons unrelated to the
                                       project.)

Table 2: description of the language and literacy components
of the units of work

Subject and Year    Literacy and Language        Activities and
Level               Focus                        Strategies used

Year 11 Modern      Structure of biographical    Jigsaw (4)
Greek               recount
                                                 Building content
                    Noun Groups(1)               language

                    Tense                        Joint deconstruction
                                                 of a model of the
                    Nominalisation (2)           genre with emphasis
                                                 on foregrounding and
                    Point of view                nominalisation

                    Foregrounding (3)            Joint construction
                                                 of a text
                    Effective Conclusions

                                                 Independent
                                                 construction

                                                 Group activities

                                                 Drafting and editing

Year 11 English     Structure of narratives      Deconstruction of
                                                 narrative genre with
                    Mental, action and saying    an emphasis on
                    processes (5)                structure and
                                                 language
                    Dual perspectives in
                    narratives                   Model of narrative
                                                 with dual
                    Noun groups                  perspectives

                                                 Detailed written
                                                 descriptions of
                                                 narratives provided

                                                 Information and
                                                 discussion on
                                                 descriptive language
                                                 within noun groups

                                                 Modelling of
                                                 language

                                                 Drafting and editing

Year 11 English     Structure of                 Modelling of genre
                    autobiographical recount
                    Conjunctions                 Graphic outline
                    Noun groups                  demonstrating
                                                 structure

                                                 Pro formas on noun
                                                 groups and
                                                 conjunctions
                                                 involving rewriting
                                                 short paragraphs to
                                                 add detail,
                                                 intensity and
                                                 emotion

                                                 Drafting and editing

Year 11 Maths       Technical language of        Jigsaw
                    maths with focus on
                    processes and nouns          Joint construction

                    Tense                        Group discussion

                    Linking conjunctions         Detailed description
                                                 of structure

                                                 Cloze exercise (6)
                                                 emphasising
                                                 technical terms

Year 11 Biology     Structure of taxonomic       Group work with pro
                    descriptive report           formas

                    Conjunctions                 Deconstructed text
                                                 with emphasis on
                    Expanding noun groups        nominalisation

                    Nominalisation               Cloze exercise
                                                 emphasising
                                                 conjunctions

                                                 Information on
                                                 conjunctions to
                                                 support class
                                                 exercises

Year 10             Structure of research        Modelling of genre
Australian          report
Studies                                          Joint construction
                    Technical language related
                    to the topic                 Dictogloss (7)

                    Circumstances                Jigsaw

                    Subjective/objective voice   Group-pair
                                                 activities
                    Foregrounding
                                                 Concept maps

                                                 Graphic outline to
                                                 organise information

                                                 List of technical
                                                 terms provided and
                                                 students work
                                                 together to
                                                 determine meanings
                                                 in the context of
                                                 the subject

                                                 Drafting and editing

Year 11 Chinese     Structure of film reviews    Models provided of
                                                 reviews with
                    Noun groups                  question sheet about
                                                 common elements
                    Foregrounding
                                                 Detailed description
                                                 of the structure of
                                                 reviews

                                                 Glossary provided of
                                                 the technical
                                                 language used in
                                                 reviews

                                                 Pro forma related to
                                                 the parts of noun
                                                 groups and the
                                                 important aspects in
                                                 reviews

                                                 Dictogloss

                                                 Deconstruction of
                                                 genre

                                                 Joint construction

                                                 Discussion

Year 11 and 12      Structure of factual         Discussion to help
Spanish             recount                      identify prior
                                                 knowledge
                    Tense
                                                 Pro formas,
                    Noun groups                  including a table
                                                 identifying the
                                                 different elements
                                                 of noun groups

                                                 Modelling of genre
                                                 Joint construction
                                                 Drafting and editing

Year 11             Structure of descriptive     Model of a
Electronics         report                       descriptive report

                                                 cut into paragraphs
                    Conjunctions                 and students work in
                                                 a group to put the
                    Foregrounding                text together,
                                                 justifying their
                                                 order

                                                 Joint construction

                                                 Jigsaw

                                                 Cloze exercise

                                                 Joint deconstruction

                                                 Modelling of genre

Year 8 Health       Narrative                    Modelling of genre
and Physical
Education           Noun groups, including       Deconstructing text
                    circumstances
                                                 Pro forma for
                    Direct speech                expanding noun
                                                 groups

                                                 Drafting and editing

Year 8 English      Structure of expositions     Modelling genre

                    Nominalisation               Pro forma on
                                                 expanding noun
                    3rd person point of          groups
                    view
                                                 Deconstructing text
                    Expanding noun groups
                                                 Drafting and editing

Year 8 Health       Narrative                    Modelling of genre
and Physical
Education           Noun groups, including       Deconstructing text
                    circumstances
                                                 Pro forma for
                    Direct speech                expanding noun
                                                 groups

                                                 Drafting and editing

Year 12             Structure of reports on      Modelling of genre
Accounting          financial data
(unit taught in 2                                Cloze exercise
classes)            Specialised vocabulary
                                                 Joint construction
                    Nominalisation               rewriting a text in
                                                 a formal written
                    Expanded nominal groups      form

                    Causal relational            Drafting and editing
                    processes

                    Modal language in
                    recommendations

Year 10 and         Newspaper article            Modelling of genre
11 Journalism
(combined class)    Quotations                   Joint construction

                    Active and passive voice     Drafting and editing

                    Objectivity

                    Foregrounding in leads

Year 10 English     Structure of expositions     Joint construction

                    Noun groups                  Drafting and editing

                    Third person

                    Nominalisation

Year 11 Chinese     Structure of film reviews    Modelling of genre

                    Nominal group                Jigsaw

                    Linking and binding          Drafting and editing
                    conjunctions (8)

Notes to the table

(1) The group of words built up around the noun. The composition of
noun groups will depend on the specific purpose of the text.

(2) Words, such as verbs and adjectives, are turned into nouns.
Nominalisation is important within secondary education as it is often
used to present abstract thought using the third-person point of view.

(3) Effective foregrounding occurs when language is used to guide and
orientate the reader.

(4) This activity provides opportunities for students to discuss new
concepts and develop understanding through instruction. Students form
groups and share knowledge about a particular topic. New groups are
then formed, so that each new group has a member from the previous
group. Knowledge is then shared within the new groups.

(5) Verbs are called processes within systemic functional linguistics.

(6) The teacher creates a text or part of a text where certain words
are left out. Students fill in the gaps. The exercise can support
learning of content related words, or words that support the purpose
of the genre.

(7) Students listen to a text being read and then they try to
reconstruct it. Group sharing can occur until the text is largely
recreated.

(8) Linking conjunctions are used to join clauses, where the two
clauses are not structurally dependent on each other. Binding
conjunctions refer to words that are used to join clauses, where
one clause is structurally dependent on the other.

table 3: Preferred methods of support

5 most popular methods of support                 % of students who
provided by the teacher                          completed a survey

* modelling and examples                                 19%
* one on one assistance                                  13%
* explicit detail on the criteria for the task           11%
* opportunities for drafting and feedback                15%
* explain everything clearly and well                    13%

Table 4: Analyses of student work

Year level,      Analysis of writing before
subject,  focus  intervention                 Analysis of
of intervention  (numbers refer to            writing after
and number of    number of students;          intervention
students         nd=not developed,
involved in      pd=partial development,
analysis         d=developed)

11 Modern Greek  Structure: 4 pd, 1 nd, 1 d   Structure: 5 d, 1 pd
structure, noun  Noun groups: 2 pd, 4 d       Noun groups: 6 d
groups, tense,   Tense: 5 d, 1 pd             Tense: 6 d
nominalisation,  Nominalisation: 5 pd, 1 nd   Nominalisation: 4 pd,
point of view,   Point of view:5 pd, 1 d      2 d
foregrounding    Foregrounding: 4 d, 2 pd     Point of view: 6 d
work of 6                                     Foregrounding: 6 d
students

11 English       Structure: 1 d, 2 pd, 1 nd   Structure: 2 d, 2 pd
structure,       Mental/action/saying         Mental/action/saying
mental/action/   processes: 3 d, 1 pd         processes: 4 d,
saying           Dual perspectives: 1 pd,     Dual perspectives: 4 d
processes, dual  3 d                          Noun groups: 4 d
perspectives,    Noun groups: 3 d, 1 pd
noun groups
work of 4
students

11 English       Student work not kept at     Student work not
Structure,       the beginning of the unit    collected for analysis at
conjunctions,                                 the end of the unit
noun groups

11 Maths         Technical language: 3 pd,    Technical language: 3 pd,
structure,       1 d                          1 d
technical        Tense: 2 d, 2 pd             Tense: 3 d, 1 pd
language of      Linking conjunctions:        Linking conjunctions:
maths with       1 d, 2 pd, 1 nd              3 d, 1 pd
focus on
processes and
nouns, tense,
linking
conjunctions
work of 4
students

11 Biology       Structure: 1 nd, 1 pd        Structure: 1 d, 1 pd
structure,       Conjunctions: 2 nd           Conjunctions: 2 pd
conjunctions,    Noun groups: 2 pd            Noun groups: 2 d
noun groups,     Nominalisation: 2 pd         Nominalisation: 2 pd
nominalisation
work of 2
students

10 Australian    Structure: 3 pd, 1 nd        Structure: 1 d, 3 pd
Studies          Technical language: 4 pd     Technical language: 3 d,
structure,       Circumstances: 2 pd, 2 nd    1 pd
technical        Subjective/objective voice:  Circumstances: 3 d, 1 pd
language,        4 pd                         Subjective/objective
circumstances,   Foregrounding: 4 pd          voice: 2 d, 2 pd
subjective/                                   Foregrounding: 1 d, 3 pd
objective
voice,
foregrounding
work of 4
students

11 Chinese       Structure: 4 pd              Structure: 4 pd
Structure, noun  Noun groups: 3 d, 1 pd       Noun groups: 4 d
groups,          Foregrounding: 3 d, 1 pd     Foregrounding: 4 d
foregrounding
work of 4
students

11 & 12 Spanish  Structure: 2 pd              Structure: 2 d
structure,       Tense: 1 pd, 1 d             Tense: 2 d
tense, noun      Noun groups: 2 pd            Noun groups: 2 pd
groups work of
2 students

11 Electronics   Student work not kept at     Student work not
structure,       the beginning of the unit    collected for analysis at
conjunctions,                                 the end of the unit
foregrounding
student work
not collected

8 HPE            Noun groups: 1 nd, 4 pd      Noun groups: 5 d
noun groups,     Circumstances: 5 pd          Circumstances: 4 d, 1 pd
circumstances,   Direct speech/thought: 2     Direct speech/thought:
direct speech/   d, 3 nd                      5 d
thought work of
5 students

8 English        Structure: 10 d, 2 nd        Structure: 11 d, 1 pd
structure, noun  Noun groups: 11 d, 1 nd      Noun groups: 11 d, 1 nd
groups, third    Third person voice: 4 d, 3   Third person voice: 11 d,
person,          pd, 5 nd                     1 nd
nominalisation   Nominalisation: 8 d, 2 pd,   Nominalisation: 8 d, 3
work of 12       2 nd                         pd, 1 nd
students

8 HPE            Noun groups: 4 pd            Noun groups: 3 pd, 1 d
noun groups,     Circumstances: 4 pd          Circumstances: 2 d, 2 pd
circumstances,   Direct speech/thought: 3     Direct speech/thought: 2
direct speech/   p, 1 nd                      pd, 2 d
thought work of
4 students

12 Accounting    Structure: 2 pd, 2 d         Structure: 2 pd, 2 d
structure,       Specialised vocabulary: 3    Specialised vocabulary:
specialised      pd, 1 nd                     4 d
vocabulary,      Noun groups: 1 d, 3 pd       Noun groups: 4 d
nominalisation,  Causal relational            Causal relational
noun groups,     processes: 1 d, 3 pd         processes:
causal           Modal language in            4 d
relational       recommendations section: 1   Modal language in
processes,       d, 1 nd, 2 pd                recommendations section:
synonyms, modal                               1 d, 3 pd
language in
recommendations
work of 4
students

10 and 11        Quotations: 4 nd             Quotations: 4 d
Journalism       Active and passive voice: 3  Active and passive voice:
quotations,      d; 1 pd                      4 d
active and       Objective voice: 4 d         Objective voice: 4 d
passive voice,   Foregrounding in leads: 3    Foregrounding in leads: 3
objectivity,     nd, 1 d                      d, 1 nd
foregrounding
in leads work
of 4 students

10 English       Structure: 2 pd, 1 d         Structure: 2 d, 1 pd
structure, noun  Noun groups: 2 pd, 1 d       Noun groups: 2 pd, 1 d
groups, third    Third person point of view:  Third person point of
person,          2 d, 1nd                     view: 3 d
nominalisation   Nominalisation: 2 d, 1 pd    Nominalisation: 2 d, 1 pd
work of 3
students

11 Chinese       Student work not kept at     Structure: 5 pd, 1 d
structure, noun  the beginning of the unit    Noun groups: 1 d, 5 pd
groups, linking                               Linking and binding
and binding                                   conjunctions: 4 d, 2 pd
conjunctions
work of 6
students