Multimodal literacy: what does it mean for classroom practice?

Walsh, Maureen

Introduction

Within the context of two national initiatives, the Digital Education Revolution (Australian Government, DEEWR, 2008) and the development of a Draft Australian Curriculum for English (ACARA, 2009-2010), it is timely that the challenges and implications of digital communication technologies for literacy education be considered. Rapid changes in digital communication provide facilities for reading and writing to be combined with various and often quite complex aspects of images, music, sound, graphics, photography and film. At the same time, educational policy and national testing requirements are still principally focused on the reading and writing of print-based texts. If multiple literacies (Simpson & Walsh, in press) or multiliteracies (Cope & Kalantzis, 2000; Unsworth, 2001; Healy, 2008) are now essential proficiencies for communication in a contemporary world, the challenge for literacy educators is to consider to what extent digital technologies can be incorporated within classroom literacy programs without reducing the importance of the rich, imaginative and cultural knowledge that is derived from books.

As with all innovation, we are currently in a transition stage where educational policy and curriculum documents have not yet adapted to changes that have occurred with the range of digital media that are becoming embedded in people's lives. In several sections of the Draft National Curriculum for English, there is reference to the importance of students reading and producing multimodal and digital texts. However the document does not articulate clearly how these texts can be incorporated into teaching, learning and assessment. Nor does the Draft Curriculum take into account the contradiction between students working with multimodal and digital texts while being assessed through national tests that occur with print-based materials. It is essential that we become specific in the way we describe new processes of reading and writing that are occurring with digital communications technology; that we allow for appropriate changes in pedagogy; and that we develop relevant procedures for assessment.

This paper discusses the results of ongoing research, specifically focusing on a study conducted in nine primary classrooms (K-6) in Sydney during 2008. The aim of the research was to investigate the literacy strategies that students need for reading and writing with multimodal texts; and to identify the most appropriate pedagogy for combining print-based with digital technologies. The results of the study provide specific examples of how teachers and students can engage with digital communication. In each classroom teachers worked within teams to develop integrated programs across different curriculum areas, combining print and digital texts for students' engagement in reading, responding to, viewing, writing and producing texts. The analysis of the classroom data confirms that literacy needs to be redefined within current curriculum contexts.

Review of recent research

The increased accessibility and mobility of digital technology have rapidly changed the way we communicate and these changes intensify the need to clarify the relationship between literacy and technology. Currently we are able to communicate instantly with combinations of text, photographs or videos via mobile phone technology and with different types of computers and multimedia devices. Social changes have accompanied these technological developments and the new 'textual landscape' (Carrington, 2005). We are able to participate in twittering, wikis, blogs or in various social networking sites (e.g. MySpace, Facebook, YouTube, Flickr); obtain instant information from the Web; or participate in a virtual environment through gaming or in a virtual world such as 'Second Life'. These communication environments are changing the way people present themselves and the way relationships are developed. The 'new' of the future is constantly replacing the 'new' of now. We do not know how these developments will continue to impact on society or on children growing up in this digital environment.

The impact of these technological developments on literacy education have been theorised for some time (e.g. Cope & Kalantzis, 2000; Lankshear & Knobel, 2003; Kress & van Leeuwen, 2001; Kress, 2003), however, it is not simply a matter of transferring these theories into educational policy and curriculum design. New educational theories have to be clearly articulated and researched in real classrooms. Different terminology has been used in recent years to indicate how literacy has been changing within new modes of communication, e.g. visual literacy, new literacies, digital literacies, multimodality and multiliteracies (e.g. Kress & van Leeuwen, 2001; Cope & Kalantzis, 2000; Unsworth, 2001; Lankshear & Knobel, 2003; Coiro, Knobel, Lankshear & Leu, 2008). In this paper the term multimodal literacy is used to indicate the way processes of literacy--reading, writing, talking, listening and viewing are occurring within and around new communication media (Kress & Jewitt, 2003; Pahl & Rowsell, 2005; Walsh, 2008).

Multimodal literacy refers to meaning-making that occurs through the reading, viewing, understanding, responding to and producing and interacting with multimedia and digital texts. It may include oral and gestural modes of talking, listening and dramatising as well as writing, designing and producing such texts. The processing of modes, such as image, words, sound and movement within texts can occur simultaneously and is often cohesive and synchronous. Sometimes specific modes may dominate. For example, when processing screen-based texts the visual mode may dominate whereas the mode of sound may be dominant in podcasts.

There are two significant themes emerging from current research into multimodal literacy and these considerations have implications for classroom practice. The first theme is the effect of the technological changes that are inherent in reading, writing and producing 'on screen' compared with reading and writing print-based texts. The second theme is related to the changes that are occurring in the social practices of literacy which have changed and expanded exponentially with the development of Web 2.0 technology. These two themes are now discussed in the light of ongoing research.

Reading, writing and producing on screen

While considering the differences in both reading and writing on screen compared with print-based texts, it is often impossible to separate the processes of reading, viewing, interacting and writing. A crucial issue for literacy educators is whether those 'basic' aspects of reading and writing 'on screen' entail different processes from the reading, writing and producing of print-based texts. The theory of multimodality (Kress & van Leeuwen, 2001; Kress, 2003) has been the basis for the contention that the simultaneous processing of different modes of text, image, sound and gesture in visual, media or digital texts is a different function from the linear, sequential reading of print-based texts. Other theorists and researchers (e.g. Snyder, 1997; Leu, 2000; Unsworth, 2001; Lankshear & Knobel, 2003) have supported this view for some time and have attempted to theorise the changed nature of literacy within new communication environments.

A recent study conducted through the United Kingdom Literacy Association (UKLA) (Bearne et al. 2007) provides evidence to show that students across an age range from three to sixteen use a range of skills and strategies for reading screen-based texts. Observations from this study show that the navigation of screen-based texts frequently involves 'radial browsing' which is quite different from the left-to-right, linear reading of print-based texts. Researchers' observations confirmed that students were able to trawl language, image and music as well as highlight key sections to retrieve information. While students were able to apply aspects of comprehension to obtaining screen-based information it was 'orchestrating the different modes to make meaning' (p. 20) that was seen as a different process that could not be assessed in the same way as the assessment of the reading of print-based texts.

We need to realise, however, that we cannot just consider the differences between reading print and reading on screen as static comparisons. Reading on screen involves various aspects of online processing that includes responding to animated icons, hypertext, sound effects, and the continuous pathways between and within screens for internet and intranet. Researchers (e.g. Lawless & Shrader, 2008) have only begun to understand the processes of navigating hypermedia along with both the intertexual and intratexual characteristics of cyberspace environments.

Students of today quickly adapt to the navigation potential and the processing of different modes within digital texts (Gee, 2003; Prensky, 2001). This processing itself often incorporates a merging and synchronising of text, images, sound and movement as these occur in recent digital products, such as the iPhone for example. We do not know how such processing and morphing of messages and texts is affecting the way children learn, or if the processes involved in activities such as texting, blogging, or communicating online are developing different cognitive abilities than those required for reading and writing traditional print-based texts. Gee's research (2003) on video gaming suggests that the procedures involved can offer cognitive advantages with intricate literacy and learning opportunities.

While writing on screen has existed for a long time with word-processing facilities, 'writing' is now very often a move towards a product that may contain quite sophisticated layout, graphics, photographs and images. Bearne (2003) has for some time explicated the possibilities of teachers using students' writing and production of multimodal texts within classroom literacy programs. Recently, Bearne and Wolstencroft (2007) have demonstrated possibilities for teachers programming and assessing writing through students' multimodal texts. They show the interrelationship between reading and writing in producing texts and explain how students need to understand the meaning making potential of different modes, particularly the relationship between words and images, in reading, writing and producing multimodal texts.

The facilities of Web 2.0 have further changed the possibilities of students' writing and text production. A weblog or blog, for example, is produced with appropriate layout for screen and can combine text, images, graphics, photos or video with sound and music. Design is important for blogs and needs to be carefully developed to reflect the author/producer and to engage the audience who can respond with text and images. As students produce multimodal texts they need to consider and understand features of design such as layout, composition, use of text and image or graphics--including aspects such as colour, size, medium, angles--and the way these would suit a specific audience. It is significant that other researchers have been investigating design as integral to literacy pedagogy (e.g. Kalantzis & Cope, 2005; Healy, 2008).

While considering these differences in both reading and writing on screen compared with print-based texts, it is now impossible to separate processes of reading or writing on screen from the social practices that accompany these processes. These social practices of literacy have changed and expanded exponentially with the development of Web 2.0 technology.

Changing social practices of literacy

These changes have both educational and social implications that are only partly related to technology. The escalation of the popularity and availability of social networking sites, such as MySpace, Facebook, YouTube and others, and the associated development of blogs, wikis and participation in online gaming and virtual reality sites have enabled different forms of communication and communities to evolve.

It has long been accepted that literacy is not a simple act of decoding, comprehending or reproducing printed word on the page. Rather literacy has been shown to be founded in social practices (e.g. Street, 1984; Barton, 1994) so that becoming literate is a complex interaction between the learner's background and language and the context, purpose and discourse of the text. With the increased use and popularity of social networking, literacy practices have adapted to these changed forms of communication. Such rapid development of digital technologies has changed the nature of literacy and will continue to do so. As Coiro et al. (2008) contend,

   No previous technology for literacy has been adopted by so many, in
   so many different places, in such a short period, and with such
   profound consequences. No previous technology for literacy permits
   the immediate dissemination of even newer technologies of literacy
   to every person on the Internet by connecting to a single link on a
   screen. (pp. 2-3)

The consideration for researchers and educators is whether literacy itself, as social practice, will continue to change and need redefining as further online and mobile technology devices evolve and establish new ways of communicating.

Students of today will need to be able to continually adapt to new technologies and to those literacy practices needed for each development. The reality is that, even at this time of writing, newer communication technologies are emerging. More than ever teachers need to prepare their students for the new literacy practices and discourses that have become embedded in online social interaction. More than ever students need to be able to identify the authenticity and ideology of texts and messages, and to critically evaluate the purpose and audience that specific texts are designed for. With the sophistication possible with designing texts, students need not only to be able to use and manipulate new technologies but to be able to consider the best way to use these for their purpose and audience. The research reported in this paper provides some insight into classroom responses to both the technological and social changes of digital communication.

The research study

The purpose of the research study was to broaden understandings of programming for literacy learning within both print-based and digital communication environments to achieve sustainable outcomes for literacy learning and teaching. The study was conducted with sixteen teachers in nine primary classrooms (K-6) in the Sydney metropolitan area. Many of these schools had large numbers of second language learners of English. Teachers volunteered for the project in response to an invitation from their employing authority and they were selected on the basis of their interest and experience, particularly their interest in investigating new pedagogy for literacy. Teachers worked within teams, usually of two or three, and developed integrated programs across different curriculum areas, combining print and digital texts for students' engagement in reading, responding to, viewing, writing and producing texts. The results provide specific examples of ways in which teachers and students were engaging with digital communication for literacy learning and shaping future classrooms. Detailed examples are published in other reports (e.g. Walsh, 2008; 2009) and the research is ongoing. The examples presented in this paper provide evidence of changed and effective practice for reshaping literacy pedagogy.

Methodology

The study used a mixed method design with online questionnaires and multiple case studies. The online questionnaires were designed to obtain information about students' use of the internet and digital texts, as well as print-based texts, outside school. The qualitative design of the study was an incorporation of professional learning and research. Teachers worked with the researcher within the paradigm of collaborative participatory research (e.g. Wagner, 1997, pp. 13-22; Yelland, Lee, O'Rourke & Harrison, 2008, p. 16). This approach to research maintains a balance between developing new knowledge and involving the members of the community with the teachers as partners in the research. The researcher developed the survey and completed classroom observations and analysis of data. Other curriculum advisers assisted in classroom observations. Teachers planned their program and kept diaries, notes on their classroom observations and submitted these diaries and a written report along with samples of students' work in print and digital form. Data consisted of classroom observations; diaries in photos and video files; teachers' programs, reports and reflections; samples of students' work in print and digital mode; and students' comments on their learning. Guidelines were developed for observations of specific aspects of students' literacy behaviour. The data was analysed to discern common themes related to specific aspects of language and literacy learning. In the first instance students' work was separated into outcomes and indicators from the NSW K-6 English Syllabus of talking and listening, reading, viewing and writing. Each case study was analysed to identify how aspects of digital communication were incorporated into the criteria of talking and listening, reading and viewing, and writing. The table in Appendix 1 demonstrates examples of the analysis with nine of the case studies from the 2008 study.

Results of the study

Findings were analysed from two types of data, the online questionnaires that students completed and the case study data from nine classrooms. These are now discussed.

Questionnaire findings

Online questionnaires were circulated to schools for students in the project to provide information about their reading activities at home as well as watching television, gaming, accessing the internet or other activities with digital media. This survey was influenced by the UKLA Reading on Screen Report (Bearne et al. 2007) which investigated students' literacy activities outside school in order to consider how these activities might be impacting on students' literacy learning in school. Similar results are found in this Sydney study, showing particular trends with gender differences and younger children rapidly gaining proficiency with digital texts. Results of responses from approximately 220 students in Early Stage 1 (ES1), Stage 1 (S1) and Stage 3 (S3) are summarised in Table 1.

These findings reveal a trend away from students accessing print technologies at home. The majority of students were not reading books for leisure. Although the sample of students is relatively small, the results are consistent with other research that has shown that, outside school, students are more likely to be engaged in activities with digital and mobile technology such as instant messaging, gaming and social networking. There are several implications for educators, particularly the challenge of maintaining students' motivation to continue to read books and to engage in sustained reading of varieties of print-based texts as well as digital texts.

Case study findings

The programs developed by the 16 teachers in nine classrooms were analysed as nine separate case studies. We examined the criteria of talking, listening, reading, viewing and writing and considered how the use of digital communication technologies was occurring within these literacy activities.

In each of the nine case studies teachers integrated literacy within different curriculum areas and these Key Learning Areas (KLAs) varied between English, Science and Technology, Human Society and Its Environment, Creative Arts and Religious Education. Digital communication technologies became embedded within students' learning experiences and these were the result of the teachers planning with a holistic approach towards literacy pedagogy. There was a continuum in the development of print and digital literacy practices across different KLAs. The focus on literacy within these curriculum subjects ensured that students needed to build their knowledge of the field, or content knowledge, in their understanding of concepts, development of vocabulary knowledge, and ways of using language structures in spoken and written forms to observe, describe, report, explain or discuss key aspects of knowledge. Thus there was a continual merging of learning experiences with print and digital materials, along with talking, listening, reading, writing and producing texts for real purposes.

An example of this merging is evident in Table 2 which summarises the unit of work in a Year One classroom. In this unit, entitled 'Digichicks', the students were engaged in a number of concrete experiences, linked to reading and writing activities, which helped to develop their understanding of the lifecycle of a chicken. Some of these experiences included students observing chickens hatch and grow, designing a hatchery, creating clay figures for a Claymation story of the lifecycle of a chicken, and cooking.

This summary demonstrates the richness of learning that occurred as students engaged in reading and writing through a great deal of talking, listening, observing and viewing with concrete materials, print and digital texts. There was a constant interchange between sensory experiences, written and screen modes of images and words. For example, photographs of the chicks at different stages of growth were displayed around the classroom with written descriptions that the students were able to read. Students wrote their individual descriptions and procedures on paper-based texts and also typed their comments into the online diary VoiceThread as they uploaded photographs. Other students responded with their comments. This example is typical of all the case studies where significant literacy and learning were occurring for students. In every case observed, students were all engaged in investigation by reading, viewing, searching and responding to information in books or screen-based texts. Through their investigations they were gaining knowledge of the curriculum content of specific KLAs, understanding concepts and problem solving. Students were engaged in literacy practices, displaying metacognition, and using the metalanguage of the KLA as well as the language of digital technology. Students were benefiting from the extended focus of units of work and the multiple tasks developed within these units. Literacy practices of reading, viewing and writing were occurring, with oral language, collaboration and problem solving, as integrated, multimodal processes within different KLAs. These literacy practices were different from a traditional view of literacy as the 'reading and writing' of paper-based texts.

Two major conclusions were drawn from the data. These were:

1. the changed nature of the language and literacy practices of talking, listening, reading and writing; and

2. the changed nature of learning and teaching with digital communication technologies.

The main features of these conclusions are now discussed.

Discussion

The changed nature of the language and literacy practices of talking, listening, reading and writing

The data confirmed that literacy needs to be redefined within current curriculum contexts, particularly in light of the emergence of a national curriculum. It became evident that the language and literacy processes of talking, listening, reading and writing embody further dimensions when combined with digital communications technology. For example, in one of the case studies in Stage 3 (Years 5 and 6), teachers developed an integrated program for English and Creative and Performing Arts (CAPA) around the central theme of the artist Picasso. Students explored Picasso's life, famous works and his period in art history. Some of the students' work involved participating in class blogs with collaborative discussion and critique, as well as producing written texts and digital media that showed their analysis of Picasso's work. Table 3 shows an analysis of the case study using the criteria of talking and listening, reading and writing along with the incorporation of digital technology. Bold typeface indicates the use of digital texts or digital technology.

The details presented in Table 3 demonstrate how the language and literacy practices of talking, listening, reading and writing merged with digital texts and digital technology. This example is typical of what was occurring throughout many of the case studies although the ages of the students, the topics and type of technology varied in each case (as shown in Appendix 1). While some programs were more effective than others, there was often a richness of learning when literacy activities, modes and texts were connected in a meaningful way. The interweaving of digital technology allowed for a holistic learning experience with talking, listening, reading and writing being interdependent.

Thus a more comprehensive description of language and literacy has evolved from this study and is proposed as a 'work in progress' for consideration and comment from readers. This description of multimodal literacy is represented by the diagram in Figure 1. The diagram depicts the interrelationship between different texts, mediums and modes and includes traditional along with digital features within the modes of talking, listening, reading and writing.

[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]

The diagram represents the interrelationship that occurred between literacy activities throughout the nine case studies in the project. The diagram shows spoken, print, digital and multimedia texts as interchangeable resources within the classrooms. These texts exist within the whole concept of multimodal literacy because students were reading and responding to these different types of texts as well as writing and producing them.

The practices of talking, listening, reading, viewing and writing were interrelated and interdependent as talking and listening led to reading activities or to writing tasks. Similarly reading often involved talking and listening or led to writing, while writing invoked talking and listening or further reading. The three circles within the diagram represent the interdependency and fluidity between these language and literacy practices. Specific terms are listed to demonstrate those practices that usually occur. In addition, other terms are suggested to show further practices that are occurring with digital communication. These terms are not definitive but an attempt to demonstrate how language and literacy practices are developing further dimensions within new communication environments.

Talking and listening occurred as students responded to print or digital texts they had read, viewed, listened to, written and produced. Talking and listening were not isolated skills as they usually involved students collaborating to investigate a topic and negotiating to construct a product for an audience to demonstrate their learning. Collaboration included networking and connecting to texts and each other in both a physical and virtual sense. Talking and listening were essential to learning and literacy as students researched and planned to demonstrate specific knowledge through their final designed products. Along with the facilities of digital technology, students were connecting and networking online as well as together in the classroom. Aspects of social networking were introduced in three of the classes through Voice Thread technology or class blogs. These adaptations of social networking allowed for ongoing communication and interaction between participants. Students were able to synchronously see other students' work, responses and opinions as they responded with their own.

Such online communication within the classrooms was establishing new social practices and extending the concept of talking and listening for learning. As well, students engaged in craft, art, music or drama activities within these processes. Thus the definition of talking and listening needs to include aspects such as collaborating, investigating, negotiating, enacting, connecting, interacting, and networking.

Reading entailed students being involved in shared, modelled and independent reading with various phonics, word recognition and vocabulary activities appropriate to their age. It also involved students responding at different levels of literal, inferential and critical understanding with information books and literature. At the same time many of these activities occurred with digital texts such as internet sites. Students interacted with texts and with others as they researched information in books or on screen. On-screen reading incorporates multisensory activities such as searching, viewing, browsing, scrolling and navigating together with the clicking and scrolling of a mouse, responding to animated icons, hypertext, sound effects, and the continuous pathways between and within screens. The definition of reading is shown in the diagram as 'reading and viewing', and this is consistent with terminology that occurs in many curriculum documents. As reading and viewing are often an interchangeable process, reading should include aspects such as analysing, browsing, decoding, hyper linking, interpreting, navigating, responding and searching.

Writing involved all students writing one or more text type on paper. This process then led to students composing, planning, designing and producing texts on paper to be transformed into digital or multimedia texts on screen. On-screen writing usually became part of a designed product for an audience e.g. a poster or a pamphlet, website, slide show or a multimedia text such as a movie, with graphics, animation and sound. Students developed skills for evaluating and critiquing their own and their peers' work as they considered the purpose of their text and its appropriateness for its audience. For example, in two instances where teachers organised blogging for their students in upper and middle primary classes students were given clear guidelines on how to make constructive and critical comments on their peers' work. As shown in the Picasso program, design emerged as an integral component of writing and producing texts to reflect the author/producer and to engage the audience. It became evident that as students were producing multimodal texts they had to consider and understand features of design such as layout, composition, use of text and image or graphics--including aspects such as colour, size, medium, angles--and the way these would suit a specific audience. Thus the definition of writing should incorporate composing, creating, designing, evaluating, planning, producing, and transforming.

These redefinitions of language and literacy explain how the processes of talking, listening, reading and writing are different because of the way digital technology has changed social communication practices. Differences occur, not only in interaction between different modes in the processes of reading or writing on screen or online, but in the interaction between students. Aspects that have not been considered in this study in relation to reading and writing in virtual environments are intertexuality, intratextuality and the evolution of hybrid texts. These aspects need to be considered in any further descriptions of reading and writing as they are influencing texts that are interchanged though the web, particularly within social networking environments. The influences of such social practices were emerging as significant considerations within the data. For example, observations of Kindergarten using VoiceThread showed they were highly motivated to extend the diary of their learning into this online environment. Teachers of upper primary students commented on how students were engaged in reading, writing and learning through use of blogs. Some examples of students' comments on these experiences are shown in Table 4.

These comments show that students were responding positively to the collaborative, open sharing of work and ideas possible through online communication. Teachers found that these early attempts at social networking were engaging students in learning. One teacher's comment is typical of many others, 'We found that students who were not usually keen to write were more engaged in the writing process as there was a motivating goal for them to see each other's work and to achieve collaboratively'.

The changed nature of learning and teaching with digital communication technologies

Within the analysis of the case study data we mapped the interweaving of digital communication within all three key literacy areas of talking and listening, reading and writing. Digital communication technologies became embedded within students' learning experiences and these were the result of the teachers planning with a holistic approach so that there was a continuum in the development of print and digital literacy practices across different KLAs. Teachers considered that there was an increased quality in students' talking and listening experiences. The majority of activities involving digital technology required talking and listening either about the technology and how to use it, the KLA topic, or the literacy activity required. Increasingly throughout the tasks students were engaged in critical reflection and evaluation. This learning encouraged more talking about the work of others and in turn, encouraged a collaborative learning environment.

Along with the collaborative nature of communication that occurred with online diaries and blogging activities, collaboration occurred throughout all the case studies as students worked together. Both researchers and teachers observed the nature of this collaboration as different from previous ways that students had worked in group activities. Group work and cooperative learning have existed in education for several decades but we considered that there were different dynamics occurring in students' interactions with each other and with the tasks. Although these differences cannot be quantitatively proven, the data from the nine case studies suggests that students' cooperation with others had taken on a distinct profile. This profile was evidenced by students having a purpose, usually to create a digital or multimedia text to be communicated to an audience. To achieve this purpose they assisted each other, negotiated, supported and critiqued their peers' work to create a final product for an audience. Such participatory learning was evident in all the case studies. The range of activities that occurred meant that talking, listening and learning were linked to the interaction with digital technologies and, as already shown, created a different social profile of collaboration between students within the classroom.

It is difficult to determine whether this social profile of collaboration is directly related to the increase of social networking practices on the web along with the overall changes in communication with digital technologies. Research into aspects of social networking is at preliminary stages and, as Merchant (2008) has shown, not able to proceed as fast as the phenomenon itself. There is evidence, however, to show that social networking is more interactive and participatory, and that the nature of literacy practices in online or virtual environments are shaping identities differently (Coiro et al., 2008). The data, some of which has been discussed in this paper, show that interactive and participatory features enabled students to engage enthusiastically in learning. Perhaps students were responding to modes of learning and communicating that they are encountering outside school. The question of students adapting their identities to suit different online practices or virtual worlds was not evident within this study with primary school students. Other research (e.g. Lewis & Farbos, 2005) is indicating that the issue of identity is an important consideration for future pedagogy that uses social networking practices. While much more research is needed to consider classroom implications, it was evident that the social features of digital communication technologies were intertwined with students' motivation and engagement in learning.

Conclusion

The findings from this research study reveal positive outcomes as well as challenges for new literacy pedagogy. Classroom evidence demonstrates that teachers can combine students' print-based literacy learning with digital communications technology effectively. This outcome was achieved by teachers recognising the need to adapt classroom communication to those digital communication practices that students access outside school and that will be significant in the future for their students. There were many exciting and innovative experiences throughout the study that provide evidence that teachers were planning creatively to engage students in effective literacy learning. There are however several challenges existing within this relatively new learning environment. We need to accept that there are unanswered questions within a time of transition for education as we continue to blend new with traditional approaches to learning and teaching.

We have to ensure that with the incorporation of digital communication technologies basic aspects of reading, writing, language learning, grammar, spelling and punctuation are still explicitly taught. However we need to be clear about those aspects that are now 'basic' for reading and writing with digital and multimedia texts. Teachers in this project assessed students' reading and production of multimodal texts in relation to Syllabus outcomes but further research is needed for specific assessment criteria that will reflect changing practices.

The data from the study offers evidence for new descriptors of literacy and theorises the concept of 'multimodal literacy' within classroom contexts. These new descriptors, which are proposed as a 'work in progress' that others may build on and critique, are in accord with other ongoing research. They need to be considered for incorporation into curriculum documents for planning, teaching and assessment. At the same time it is important that such descriptors be framed within consideration of social aspects of communication.

Appendix 1: Analysis of Case Studies

Summary of identification of literacy criteria of talking and listening, reading and writing through each Case study

NB: Bold typeface indicates the incorporation of digital texts or digital technology

Case Study 1

Talking and Listening

Students were engaged in many pair or group tasks that required them to talk through their learning, e.g.

* the concept of colonisation;

* reasons for British colonisation of Australia;

* used new terms related to colonisation;

* used vocabulary related to cause and effect as well as description;

* listened to teachers explanations and to information on DVD;

* responded to and discussed information on Smart Board;

* identified key words, recalled information--use of dictogloss;

* collaborated in groups for recalling and recording relevant information;

* with drama--students enacted role plays of conflict.

Reading

To develop their understanding of Colonisation, students:

* read and researched information books and websites with Smart Board;

* viewed DVD on British Colonisation of Australia;

* learnt the meaning of new vocabulary built on using key words;

* developed literal and inferential comprehension;

* sequenced information in chronological order by viewing and completing timelines for significant events and factors;

* read, viewed and responded to information and demonstrations on Smart Board;

* viewed and responded to instructions re photographing, filming

* and video editing techniques;

* read and viewed summary of information and timeline on Smart Board: touching, dragging, moving, infinite cloning facility;

* viewed and examined Google earth site;

* read, viewed and completed online quiz on video editing.

Writing

Writing literary recount was developed with teachers modeling and scaffolding so that students:

* wrote summaries of information on cards about convicts to develop information for their role play and as scaffolds for literary recounts;

* used scaffolds of language and grammatical structures on cards and on Smart Board in preparation for literary recount;

* took digital photographs, particularly focusing on angle and distance, to produce a photograph for their 'convict cards' within their role plays as convicts;

* viewed scaffolds of different literary recounts on Smart Board and designed own individual text around a convict's details;

* used moving image software from class server.

Case Study 2

Talking and Listening

In investigating the ways of conserving the environment students:

* discussed their new learning about the impact of changes in the environment and how some initiatives can be valuable--searches assisted by finding information through use of Smart Board;

* used technical language related learning about aspects such as recycling or reducing waste;

* engaged in problem solving and negotiation to identify relevant information in books and on internet for production of posters;

* to select relevant information students were developing critical evaluation and more discussion about the work of others;

* used language for the new technology and software;

* accepted peer tutoring in order to learn how to use the technology;

* due to high levels of motivation students often reiterated the expectations of the task to others. This resulted in high quality results;

* students extended learning at home and enjoying sharing new findings with peers;

* students motivated by having an audience for video and more aware of use of vocal tone and pitch for audience;

* dramatising of 'Superhero' script for filming and editing of video._

Reading

In order to gain an understanding of the specified environmental topics students:

* read and researched a variety of internet, factual texts;

* read and viewing information in video e.g. Planet Ark campaigns;

* teacher modelled shared reading of literature, Hooray for Chester; The Wonder Thing: Lester & Clyde;

* with teacher deconstructed explanation text on Smart Board--notebook highlighter assisted in scaffolding students understanding of this text-type;

* explored image composition in detail (angle types, shot, range) with use of Smart Board.

Writing

Teacher led students into gradual development to writing of explanation texts and with various models, scaffolds and products. Students:

* used Microsoft Movie Maker software and features to arrange scenes, film and edit images and audio to produce a short video. Students involved in merging the pieces of the film together, digitally;

* used imaginative idea of creating an environmental 'Super Hero' to research and care for the environment;

* students designed and produced poster, story board, costume, film;

* used 2Create and 2Publish software to create a water conservation poster and cycles chart. Students used digital camera and downloaded software in order to take photos to use on the poster. Students took photographs, downloaded the image then cropped, rotated and edited the images to suit the poster requirements;

* planned and enacted scenes for filming their group videos of 'Superhero';

* used MyClasses Desktop and relevant properties with web links to research lifecycles. Created a lifecycle using 2Publish software. Engaged in peer constructive criticism in order to make appropriate changes;

* used 2Create a Story software to create a digital environmental narrative and used story board for planning;

* recorded 'voice over' feature in the program to record the text orally taking into account individual character's voices;

* edited video to final product.

Case Study 3

Talking and Listening

Collaboration was an essential focus of talking and listening activities as students worked in small groups and:

* discussed their responses to cubist art works of Picasso;

* presented an oral description of the artwork 'Guernica';

* planned group projects on Picasso--these involved negotiation and collaboration, use of digital photography;

* evaluated and critiqued in groups as well as through blogs;

* created enactments of characters in art with photographs and video;

* planned PowerPoint presentations;

* planned video presentation with use of Smart Board.

Reading

Within the study of Picasso and cubism, students:

* read, viewed and compared art works within the cubist movement;

* researched using books, searched online web links and samples of artworks to identify and compare information of Picasso's Blue and Rose Period;

* used facilities of the Smart Board to read and deconstruct language features of a pre-existing Literary Description.

Writing

Students produced a range of writing and digital products:

* used 'Mr Picasso Head' (Online site) to introduce and produce abstract art;

* through teachers' explicit teaching of grammar students' participated in interactive games and Smart Board gallery files;

* wrote literary descriptions with a focus on ethical note taking and how to avoid plagiarism;

* wrote literary descriptions using paintings from the Blue and Rose Periods--use of art appreciation cards as scaffold;

* participated in blogging for beginners--children exposed to online definitions of 'blogging.' Posted entries onto a stage blog which was organised as a property on 'My classes' page.

In groups students:

* wrote and produced a procedure on 'How to create a cubist artwork'. Students used a digital camera to create a visual storyboard;

* combined text with photo to create a Smart Board presentation of their work;

* created an exhibition brochure using Publisher and created storyboards;

* Photographed other students in costume and role as characters from painting 'Family of Saltimbanques' and these were transferred

to Movie Maker to create a video on Smart Board: digital literacy description of 'Family of Saltimbanques' or 'Guernica';

* responded in blogs to cubist art work of other students that were photographed and available online.

Case Study 4

Talking and Listening

Students researched British Colonisation, focusing on specific aspects in three groups: Law, the Environment and Disease. Students completed research, worked in groups on tasks related to their areas, completed written exposition, art works, displays. All brought together into producing the exposition on a movie in Media Maker while learning the technology and use of Smart Board. Through collaborative groups students:

* planned the organisation of research and the presentation of the final product using Media Maker;

* discussed possible themes/aspects to be researched;

* presented their research using SmartBoard technology to the class;

* discussed changes that needed to be made to paragraphs/sentences in order to improve the quality of the writing;

* produced voice recordings using a microphone linked to a computer.

This recording was then used in Media Player;

* negotiated how to create props, backdrops, designed appropriate costumes;

* used language for new technology and software.

Reading

In this investigation of Federation students:

* read and viewed information in texts and on websites;

* read, compared and evaluated other expositions on Federation;

* read the work of peers using Smartboard and responded critically.

Writing

Students planned and produced:

* joint/small group construction of exposition--emphasis on developing cohesive paragraphs;

* whole class joint construction using these paragraphs;

* with Media Maker created a short film using the exposition written by the class. Students incorporated aspects of visual literacy which impacted on the persuasiveness of the final product. For example, colour, movement of text on screen, and camera angle;

* photographed other students in roles with digital camera. A photo to represent the ideas in each paragraph was uploaded and inserted in Media Maker:

* used and uploaded Aboriginal Music appropriate to the theme for presentation in Media Maker.

Case Study 5

Talking and Listening

With integration of Religious Education with English, students worked with teacher to develop a Liturgy for Easter and a procedural recount; 'How to prepare a Liturgy'. Students from two classes worked together and Year 6 students particularly assisted Year 2 students. Students:

* composed songs and taught these to Year 2 (including actions);

* students interviewed staff members and recorded interviews using a digital video camera to investigate 'What should a good Liturgy include?' They planned appropriate questions and the recording process required a great deal of collaboration and team work;

* used language for the new technology and software;

* involved in peer tutoring in order to learn how to use the technology;

* developed voice recording using a microphone.

Reading

To assist their preparation of a class liturgy, students:

* searched the internet for information on preparing liturgies, interviewed and filmed other teachers to find out information;

* read, viewed and evaluated structure of different websites in preparation to design their own websites;

* read scripts/questions prepared in group sessions in order to record interviews with staff members.

* read and critiqued the work of their peers (creation of web pages, PowerPoint presentations, procedural recount etc) using Smart Board technology.

Writing

To plan and produce a liturgy students:

* planned and wrote questions for interviews;

* used the information they obtained to gradually plan and participate in a class liturgy with the teachers;

* used microphone to record text in PowerPoint presentations;

* use of digital camera to take photos of children celebrating the class liturgy. Uploaded these photos onto the computer and used them in a PowerPoint presentation;

* designed a webpage on 'How to prepare a class Liturgy';

* used Smart Board to display this work to their peers;

* used Microsoft Word, Microsoft FrontPage and the internet (freeweb.com). Some students included hyperlinks.

Case Study 6

Talking and Listening

Through a range of tasks students:

* continually collaborated in response to print, visual and digital texts;

* learned by talking & listening, comparing opinions, collaborating;

* learned to critique other students' tasks. Teacher modelled aspect of critiquing positively with such guides as--What has the student done well in this task? What could make it even better? Students applied these guides and needed to discuss detailed aspects of students work to justify their comments before loading their response on to blogs.

Reading

Through tiered learning tasks, students:

* read, viewed and researched information through information texts, websites, computer programs, brochures and pamphlets;

* completed research tasks chosen: viewed and read these on class blog;

* read, responded to and critically analysed other students' work samples.

Writing

Students:

* wrote reports of their learning from specific tasks then saved in files and emailed to class blog;

* edited on screen--evaluated design of other students' products;

* posted these comments onto the class blog;

* considered appropriate internet protocols and language with emphasis on safety and politeness;

* read, wrote, designed and edited on screen.

Case Study 7

Talking and Listening

Talking, listening, problem solving and collaboration occurred as students:

* were involved in principles of scientific investigation with issues re the environment through experiments e.g. water salinity, land fill and recycling, conserving water, air pollution, rubbish recycling, oil spills, greenhouse gases. Each of these integrated with discussion of specific gifts of Holy Spirit e.g. power & courage, wisdom, reverence, wonder & awe, wisdom, understanding, right judgement.

* were learning about the meaning of the terms and using these in their discussions and linking to aspects of the environment--metacognition occurring through talk, e.g. wisdom, reverence, in relation to confirmation.

* were required to present a definition and exposition of what a particular term meant and show how it could be applied to their lives and a prayer.

* deconstructed different video advertisements to understand how they were developed in preparation for doing their own video advertisement.

* engaged in involved inquiry learning & problem solving, estimation, drawing conclusions, e.g. how long does it take to fill a bathtub of 100 litres? Use of concrete materials and experiments provided real life evidence for learning. Understanding of scientific terms and processes, e.g. salinity, ozone layer.

* were learning by talking & listening, comparing results, collaborating, recording and writing their learning -writing these findings on computer and emailing to teacher.

Reading

Within investigation of both religious and science concepts, students were engaged in reading of print and digital texts students:

* searched the internet as well as information books for definitions and explanations to ensure their understanding of the concepts within the gifts of the Holy Spirit e.g. reverence.

* searched for information on environmental issues with use of Smart Board;

* read for information and made judgements--literal, inferential and critical comprehension;

* viewed, read and deconstructed video advertisements (e.g. Moccona) to understand structure and purpose--critical literacy developed through understanding of film shots and angles, participants, setting, colour, movement, sound, timing--especially speed for ads, intertextuality, persuasive and emotive elements.

* practised with digital camera and video with a focus on key elements including camera angles and position in preparation for their video advertisement.

Writing

Students wrote and designed a variety of products:

* developed PowerPoint presentations to demonstrate their learning about different gifts of the Holy Spirit

* each group emailed notes on their findings from their science investigation to teacher

* created a slogan that depicted the theme of their group work on the Gifts of the Holy Spirit and Science investigation

* developed a script for an advertisement on ways of conserving the environment

* in groups, jointly constructed an exposition script for sun safety television advertisement and use programs such as Comic Life and Movie Maker to present final video product to other students. Particular attention placed on the use of persuasive language especially with slogans and RAPS e.g. 'Go green, keep the earth clean.

* used Ulead to edit their television advertisement

* learnt the skills of podcasting and transferred their video onto a podcast

* designed on screen using images, font, colour, using hyperlinks, design and arrangement on screen, word processing, spell-check, custom animation, sound

Case Study 8

Talking and Listening

As students helped the teacher create a garden to plant seedlings they:

* listened to instructions, watched demonstration, planted seedlings photographed and talked about the process;

* observed and described seeds with use of digital microscopes and digi cams;

* discussed procedure using picture cards and digital photographs as scaffold;

* photographs saved on computer files for students to access;

* role played procedural recount in pairs;

* retold procedure to other students before writing;

* used language of description with new vocabulary;

* played language games including plant puzzle and plant bingo;

* made vegetable soup with teacher;

* digital recording on webcam of students talking about the procedure of planting and seedlings growing.

Reading

Together with viewing of seedlings and the planting, students:

* viewed images of features of seedlings in a wide range of information books;

* viewed details through use of posters with text, photos and diagrams that were displayed around the classroom and on the computer screen;

* engaged in ongoing viewing and observation to answer 'How do seeds grow? How have the seeds changed?'

* viewed photos of seeds, celery stem leaf and other vegetables;

* observed the teacher modelling reading with several picture and information books e.g. What does a garden need? by Judy Nayer. The Tiny Seed by Eric Carle, Seeds grow! by Angela S. Medearis;

* were developing word recognition, phonics and sight vocabulary related to seedlings and plants, time and sequence words and descriptive adjectives.

Writing

Students:

* journalled with teacher about observations of the planting of the seedlings using digi cams;

* jointly constructed sentences describing planting;

* wrote short description of seeds as labels to pictures on computer screen from digital microscope or digi cams. Focused on simple sentences then added adjectives;

* jointly wrote of stages of procedure: teacher provided models and scaffolds of different stages, building to whole class joint construction;

* focused on language of description, instruction, particularisation, time and sequence while building procedural writing for whole class procedures: 'How seedlings grow' and 'Recipe for vegetable soup';

* integrated spelling and handwriting;

* writing was accompanied by digital drawing on computer and print out of booklet using 2create program;

Talking and Listening

Teacher led students to investigate the life cycle of chickens from embryo in egg to full growth. They:

* observed eggs, chickens, chickens hatching and listened to explanations of different stages;

* used magnifying glasses in combination with light table and digital microscope for close observation--images transferred onto computer screen and photographed;

* developed everyday vocabulary e.g. hen, feather, as well as technical language e.g. membrane;

* extended oral language structures of sequencing and explaining;

* audio recorded explanations on teacher-made postcards;

* participated in 'cooking' sessions, e.g. made omelettes, chicken cacciatore.

* learnt songs related to chickens and life cycle e.g. Love eggs and Egg song;

* enacted aspects through drama--students created freeze frames of the changes and growth of a chick.

Reading

Students engaged in reading and viewing a diverse range of sources, they:

* read information about chickens and their life cycle from information books;

* read information and pop-up cards around the room;

* viewed photos and information in students' online journals;

* viewed and recorded aspects of information from photos through digital microscope;

* viewed and read students own writing and drawing that they photographed on web cam; used digital microscope as well as postcard recording;

* identified new and technical vocabulary, e.g. incubator, fertilise, embryo;

* continued digital recording with photos, web cam, digital microscope images;

* read, interpreted and create timelines and lifecycles;

* read examples of different types of procedural texts;

* viewed illustration of a hen and its skeletal structure;

* sequenced pictures of stages of growth: from embryos to chickens hatching then growth to hen;

* teacher modelled reading of a range of texts e.g. Chick Life Cycle; by Elizabeth Bennett, The Cow that Laid an Egg? by Andy Cutbill; Miss Chicken and the Hungry Neighbour by Jude Wisdom.

* read and responded to poem 'Brown Egg' with a focus on particular grammar and punctuation features;

* read and viewed internet sites, YouTube videos of embryo development.

Writing

Students:

* recorded observations on cards and on online journal, Voice Thread. These become scaffold for procedural text. Photos taken of different stages with digital camera, web cam and digital microscope;

* students maintained diary of personal response and added to online diary on 'Voice Thread';

* in pairs students designed hatchery--produced design with writing, drawings or diagrams--winners helped with building of hatchery;

* craft activity/design: students made clay figures at different stages of chicken's life cycle, including chicken nests for claymation production;

* students recorded observations in a grid--these became a scaffold for sentences;

* focused on written vocabulary and language structures of sequencing and explaining;

* jointly constructed sentences and integrated these with use of two simple software (2publish and Icreate);

* jointly constructed explanations--how eggs turn into chicks in written form and also with 2Create software;

* created PowerPoint presentations using text, clip art and digital photos;

* developed class claymation story;

* integrated spelling and grammar throughout.

Acknowledgements

The author wishes to acknowledge the support of the Catholic Education Office (CEO) Sydney and to particularly thank all the teachers and students for their participation in this ongoing research.

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Maureen Walsh

Australian Catholic University

Table 1. Summary of questionnaires

* Over 50% of all students preferred playing computer games to reading
or watching TV.

* 96% of S3 students selected 'playing computer games' as their
preferred spare time activity.

* 46% girls, 38% boys in S1 indicated they enjoyed reading for
leisure. By S3 the responses to this item were 44% girls, 10% boys.

* Fewer than 30% of S3 students read novels at home.

* 50% of S3 boys thought 'reading was boring' compared with 10% of
girls.

* Most of S3 students indicated they used the internet at home for
school projects.

* In younger years more girls than boys indicated they used the
internet at home for school projects.

* In ES1 and S1, the majority of boys indicated they used the
internet in their spare time for activities not associated with
school work.

* More than 50% of all students responded that they received support
at home with internet use. Less students indicated that they received
support with reading books.

* 40-90% ES1, S1 & S3 students indicated confidence with using a digital
camera. A similar % responded in ES1 as in S3 with a higher indication
from boys. More than 40% of all students had used Photoshop, media
player, and made a podcast.

* Responses from younger students suggested they were as familiar as
older students with digital photography technology.

Table 2. The merging of concrete with print and digital reading
practices

Students observed the life cycle of chickens from the embryo in an
egg to full growth and listened to explanations of different stages
with new vocabulary. Observations were enhanced by use of a light table,
magnifying glass and a digital microscope with images transferred onto a
computer screen and saved. These photos with other photos from the web
cam were saved and used for an online diary in Voice Thread. Visual
records with comments were displayed in the classroom. Teachers
extended oral language structures of sequencing and explaining and
scaffolded these with audio recorded explanations on teacher-made
postcards. The teacher modelled reading of related literature with
continual attention to word recognition, phonics and sight vocabulary.
Students read and viewed information books, class displays of posters,
display of pop-up cards, and information in the online journals,
internet sites and video. Print and digital displays were used as
scaffolds for joint writing of explanations and for the making and
photographing of clay figures for a Claymation production.

Table 3. Description of language and literacy practices
with print and digital texts.

Talking     Collaboration was an essential focus of talking and
and         listening activities as students worked in small
Listening   groups and:

            * discussed their responses to cubist art works of
            Picasso;

            * presented an oral description of the artwork
            Guernica';

            * planned group projects on Picasso--these involved
            negotiation and collaboration, use of digital
            photography;

            * evaluated and critiqued cubist works in groups as
            well as through blogs;

            * created enactments of characters in art with
            photographs and video;

            * planned PowerPoint presentations;

            * planned video presentation with use of Smart Board.

Reading     Within the study of Picasso and cubism, students:

            * read, viewed and compared art works within the
            cubist movement;

            * researched using books, searched online web links
            and samples of artworks to identify and compare
            information of Picasso's Blue and Rose Period;

            * used facilities of the Smart Board to read and
            deconstruct language features of a pre-existing
            Literary Description.

Writing     Students produced a range of writing and digital
            products:

            * used 'Mr Picasso Head' (Online site) to introduce
            and produce abstract art;

            * through teachers' explicit teaching of grammar
            students' participated in interactive games and Smart
            Board gallery files;

            * wrote literary descriptions with a focus on ethical
            note taking and how to avoid plagiarism;

            * wrote literary descriptions using paintings from
            the Blue and Rose Periods--use of art appreciation
            cards as scaffold;

            * Participated in blogging for beginners--children
            exposed to online definitions of 'blogging.' Posted
            entries onto a stage blog which was organised as a
            property on intranet.

            In groups students:

            * wrote and produced a procedure on 'How to create a
            cubist artwork'.

            * Students used a digital camera to create a visual
            storyboard;

            * combined text with photo to create a Smart Board
            presentation of their work;

            * created an exhibition brochure using Publisher and
            created storyboards;

            * Photographed other students in costume and role as
            characters from painting 'Family of Saltimbanques'
            and these were transferred to Movie Maker to create a
            video on Smart Board: digital literacy description of
            Family of Saltimbanques' or 'Guernica';

            * responded in blogs to cubist art work of other
            students that were photographed and available online.

Table 4. Stage 3 students' comments on blogging

'With a blog you can have your own opinion.'

'It's good because everyone can see what you say.'

'It's more interesting for others to read.'

'You learn from other people's work.' [repeated by many students]

'You share.'