Perspectives in early childhood education: Belize, Brazil, Mexico, El Salvador and Peru.
McConnell-Farmer, Judith Lynne ; Cook, Pamela R. ; Farmer, M.W. 等
"Children have a right, as expressed in the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights and the UN Convention on the Rights of the
Child, to receive education, and early childhood education (ECE) must be
considered part of this right."
A Global Scenario (June 9, 2012) Introduction
Early childhood education (ECE) provision is becoming a growing
priority. During the past twenty years, Latin America has shown a
growing recognition in the provision of educational programs for young
children, birth to age eight, is essential. Urban and rural populations
intimated in 2009, that many countries utilizing equitable access to
quality early childhood programs is often seen by policy makers as a
means of achieving economic and political goals (United Nations, 2012).
Unfortunately, a pre-occupation with economic and political goals may
conflict with the provision of quality programming for young children.
Chavez and McConnell (2000) stated, "Early childhood education in
Latin America has been fragmented, and in some places nonexistent. In
general, those that are able to afford it place their children in
private preschool programs or hire a staff person, servant, or
babysitter to provide the daily custodial care for the child". (p.
159)
In a number of Latin American countries provisions for educating
young children exist as intent to provide quality services. The
continuing challenge is to finance, organize and regulate those
well-meaning intentions. As the, Organization for Economic Co-operation
and Development (OECD), Starting Strong II, reported: "In many OECD
countries, the level of regulation of services for children under three
gives rise for concern: much of the child care sector is private and
unregulated, with staff training and pedagogical programming being
particularly weak." (OECD, 2006, p. 12)
Therefore, the objective of this article is two-fold. Firstly, to
describe national policy efforts which regulate the education of young
children consistently. And, secondly, to reflect the status of early
childhood education programming; and to examine the possibilities for
the improvement of the quality and accessibility of an education for all
young children. Five Latin American nations have been chosen for
examination, including: Belize, Brazil, El Salvador, Mexico and Peru.
The information in Table 1, offers insights to the levels of pre-primary
education in the Latin American areas which shows a comparison with
other regions in the world (UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2007).
Gross school enrolment in pre-primary education in Latin America,
compared to other regions of the world, 2007
Belizean Education for Early Childhood Country Profile
The country of Belize is located on the Yucatan Peninsula, in
Central America with the Caribbean Sea coastal lines running along the
northeastern side. Mexico borders the northwest side of Belize with
Guatemala, running along the south and west side (Cook, 2010; Hope,
2010). Belize remains a country of strong diversity including:
landscapes of mountainous ranges to dense rain forests and white sandy
beaches. These areas surround approximately 900 historic Mayan temple
ruins. The soil in Belize contains rich nutrients for growing leafy
green vegetables. Over four hundred various sub-tropical fish habitat
off the coastal shorelines with more than five hundred species of birds
which average more diverse foul than any other country in the world
(Hope, 2010; ChaaCreek, 2012; The World Bank--Belize, 2012).
The name of British Honduras was changed in 1973 to Belize and
later gained independence from Great Britain in September, 1981
(ChaaCreek, 2012; The World Bank--Belize, 2012). The country of Belize
is quite small, ranging 22,963 square kilometers and appears the size of
the, State of Connecticut in the United States of America. Over
one-hundred small islands, known as, 'Cayes', set off Belize
among many obscure places in the world (ChaaCreek, 2012).
For being a very young country the Belizean population is
approximately 330,000 residents and has an annual growth rate of 2.21
percent. Fifty-two percent of the population lives in the urban area
while others are divided into six districts; all distinctly Belizean,
but each one having their own unique blend of cultures and natural
environments (Cook, 2010; Hope, 2010).
The six Belizean Districts include: 'Belize City'; which
also includes, 'Ambergris Caye' (Island areas), while
'Cayo' is without a seacoast but has a river system and a
rainforest with Mayan archaeological sites. To the north, the district
of 'Corozal' and 'Orange Walk', both of which grow
sugar cane, are richly influenced through Spanish descent, while the
'Stann Creek' and ' Toledo' Districts to the south
have a much larger Maya and Garifuna population with dense jungles.
All of the districts share Belizean multiculturalism including:
Black African, Creole, Chinese, East Indian, European, Garifuna, Mestizo
and Middle Eastern. Many other ethnic backgrounds are all part of the
cultural mix that makes Belize a diverse, vibrant, colourful country
(ChaaCreek, 2012).
There is "an average of 33 people per square mile which is
compared to the United States at 84 people per square mile." (Hope,
2010, p. 1) More than 96 percent of the population is under sixty-four
years of age with 36.8 percent, that are eighteen years of age and
younger. While many diverse languages are prevalent such as: French
Creole, Spanish and others, Belize is the only Central American country
where English is predominately spoken (Cook, 2010). As a young country
the portion of GDP spent for educational purposes range 5.7 percent
which can be compared to 5.5 percent in the United States of America
(Hope, 2010).
Education of Young Children in Belize
Belize, like many developing countries in the post-colonial
context, has developed an educational system based upon a structured and
traditional style of pedagogy (State Report, 2003). The Belizean
educational system is compulsory and is for youth between the ages of 5
to 15 years. Preschool education is for those students who are three and
four years of age. At the age of five, a student may enter primary
school as a member of the Infant I class. The second year of primary
school is known as Infant II. The third year of primary school for those
children who turn seven years of age is known as, Standard I. The next
several years of school range from Standard II through Standard V. Upon
the completion of Standard VI, a student may likely be eligible to
attend high school.
The first year of high school is referred to as, Form I. The
succeeding years of high school, are designated as Forms II through IV.
Because the Belizean educational system is compulsory, many students
turning 14 and 15 years of age do not attend Forms III and IV. Those
students who can afford college or university may attend three or four
years depending on the type of study. Some students begin study at age
16, which also depends on the success of the lower level achievements
(G. Price & S. Cruz, personal communication, April 16, 2007).
Nevertheless, the experiences of attending school in Belize
continue to remain problematic, which is primarily due to frequent
family migrations and numerous expenses associated with having an
education (Cook, 2010). For most Belizean families the opportunity to
attend primary school and high school is unaffordable due to the high
cost of administration fees, textbooks, uniforms, classroom materials
and excursions (Cook, 2010; State Report, 2010). In addition, Table 2,
offers information as to the, Gross and Net rates of Preschool Education
Enrollment in several Central American countries including, Belize.
The overall literacy rate of Belize is approximately 76 percent
which varies in relation to the geographic locale (State Report, 2010).
One of the major factors toward lower literacy rates may be contributed
to school attendance. However, school attendance rates vary within lower
socio-economic conditions of given locals. The subsistence economic
conditions throughout each of the six districts of Belize often make it
impossible for children to attend school. Students not only lack the
funds for school expenses, but they are required to work to support the
family (Cook, 2010).
The 'Child Activity Survey' revealed, "... 77.3
percent of children living in Belize from the ages of 5 to 17 are
working." (CAS, 2001, p. 28). The findings of the cited survey have
indicated that approximately 18 percent of school-age children have not
attended a school and are essentially child labourers. Preschool
children are affected by the impoverishment of many Belizeans.
Attendance to preschools has continued to remain problematic. Preschool
attendance ranges from 60.4 percent in the urban areas of Belize City
and ranges a low 2.7 percent in the rural southern district of, Toledo
(UNICEF, 2006). The national average for preschool attendance is
approximately 27.3 percent (State Report, 2010).
The seriousness of child labor in Belize is challenging and extends
beyond its deleterious impact on school attendance rates. The
International Child Advocacy Organisation (ICAO) warns that many
Belizean children are exposed to toxic pesticides and working long days
(State Report, 2003). In addition, most Belizean children who work are
at risk of abuse and mistreatment by adults (IPS, 2006). Legislation and
regulation is required to address the plight of primary school children
who engage in commercial activities, domestic work, and agricultural
labor during school hours instead of attending public school programs
(Cook, 2010; State Report, 2010).
Continuous Improvements in Education
Like other Latin American countries, Belize continues to make
positive strides toward the improvement of early childhood education and
the overall conditions for the welfare of children and their families.
In 1994, Belize was recognized, 'International Year of the
Family'. That recognition resulted in an on-going effort to improve
the social and economic conditions in the country. Representatives from
Belize attended the, 'United Nations General Assembly Special
Session on Children' in May, 2002. In so doing, Belize began a
thrust toward leading a new support for the Global Plan of Action known
as: A World Fit for Children (NCFC, 2002).
Consequently, UNICEF established an intervention program for young
children in Belize. The program known as, 'The Enhancing Holistic
Child Development Program', focuses on children from zero to six
years of age. This program includes the formation of policy and the
passage of legislation to foster the development of curricula for early
childhood education (Cook, 2010). It collaterally provides parent
education and promotes male involvement in childcare through the
educational process. Belize continues to improve and support programs
intended and designed to improve early childhood education, as on-going
efforts are set in place to establish new preschools in all six Belizean
districts through-out the country (Cook, 2010; Ministry of
Education-Belize, 2010).
Early Childhood Education in Brazil
Country Profile
Brazil is geographically the largest country in South America and
the eighth largest country in the world. With many other South American
Spanish speaking countries; Brazil is the only Portuguese speaking
nation in the Americas. As of July 2012, approximately 205,716,890
peoples live in Brazil (CIA-Brazil, 2012). Although Brazil is the most
populous country in South America, "The population growth has
slowed down as the growth rate has projected for 2002-15 to be
approximately 1.1 percent." (Policy Review Report-Brazil, 2012,
p.12). About 21.4 percent of the people in Brazil live at the poverty
line.
Future prospects for socio-economic conditions continue to improve
as, "Poverty (PPP US$ 2 per day) has fallen markedly, from 21
percent of the population in 2003 to 11 percent in 2009. Extreme poverty
(PPP US$ 1.25 per day) also dropped dramatically, from 10 percent in
2004 to 2.2 percent in 2009." (The World Bank, 2012) The
country's investment in education is shown in the portion of GDP
spent for educational purposes at 5 percent. Along with the improvement
of economic conditions in Brazil, there are also continual changes in
the provision of early childhood education.
The Status of Education for Young Children since 1996
A pivotal year in Brazil, 1996 was recognized and identified for
the thrust of early childhood education. The Brazilian government
instituted The 1996 National Education Guidelines and Framework Law of
Brazil, which established the boundaries for early childhood education.
The law defined certain settings for each early childhood age group.
Within those years, child care centers were stipulated only for children
0 to 3+ years of age. Children 4+ to 6+ of age were considered
preschool. The Brazilian laws identified the care and education of young
children from the ages of 0 to 6+ as belonging to basic education and
that early childhood education services were part of the total
educational system. The attendance in the basic educational system was
not considered mandatory (National Education Guidelines-Brazil, 2012;
The World Bank Brazil, 2012).
Implementation and Access
In Brazil, the municipalities are responsible for the services of
early childhood education and learning. That includes the administration
to provide funding resources and all access to childcare centers and
preschools. Even though the municipalities of Brazil provide the
facilities and conduct the administrational duties for early childhood
education, it is the individual states that provide teacher training. As
the attendance before age six is not compulsory, most teacher training
programs do not address the development or education of children four
and five years of age. More importantly, the teacher programs do not
address the educational needs of children three years of age and younger
(The World Bank--Brazil, 2012).
The Fundo de Desenvolvimento do Ensino Fundamental e de Valorizacao
do Magisterio; Fund for the Development of Elementary Education and
Teacher Development (FUNDEF), requires the states and municipalities in
Brazil to allocate 25 percent of the tax revenue for education. Included
in the laws that set-up the funding is a provision that each state and
municipality spend at least 60 percent of the revenue on elementary
education. Belfield (2007), a financial source commented, "However,
because the earmarked funding is to be applied to all education, and
primary and secondary education is mandatory, there is no specific
commitment for ECCE." (p. 5)
Challenges and Recommendations
The government of Brazil made a policy statement concerning early
childhood education without making adequate provisions for the funding
of the programs for young children. It is to the government's
credit that early childhood education is recognized as a discipline that
is an integral component of education. The municipalities assigned the
responsibility for the education of their youngest citizens and
unfortunately were faced with the challenge of having no mandate to
establish a functional system for early childhood education with defined
funding. Consequently, much of what has been prescribed has not been put
into practice.
A Brazilian society has failed to recognize the importance of
educating children three years of age and younger. The International
Early Childhood Education Task Force (IECETF) has stated, "Although
by law, ECE falls under the education sector, the division of ECE
provision between pre-school and childcare has meant that
'creches' often function as day-care rather than early
childhood education centres and moreover are poorly organized (too few
' creches' for the number of children, 0-3 years) and many are
not integrated in the education sector and recognized as education
institutions." (IECETF, 2010, p. 33) However, the family and
community-programs in Brazil continue to target the disadvantaged
regions and lower socioeconomic communities in the urban areas which
have essentially attempted to increase the enrollment of children in the
Early Childhood Educational services, by engaging parents into the
programs (IECETF, 2010).
Currently, teacher training in Brazil does not include programs for
pre-service training of teaching very young children. It is recommended,
the training of early childhood teachers include a thorough knowledge
base of child development and the curricula be appropriate to children
zero through three years of age. Teacher training specifically designed
for the teaching of children three years of age and younger is
considered to be essential. An administrative apparatus for the
regularization, certification and monitoring of early childhood
education and teacher training in Brazil will be expanded (IECETF,
2010). Additionally, statistics from educational perspectives from
Brazil have been added as follows:
Early Years in El Salvador
Country Profile
The country of El Salvador is considered the smallest country in
Central America. "El Salvador is bordered by Honduras to the north
and east and, by Guatemala to the west. It has a 307 kilometers coastal
line on the Pacific and is the only country in the region not to have a
Caribbean shore." (Foreign and Commonwealth, 2012)
The population of El Salvador is approximately 6.07 million with 90
percent of the Salvadorians of the Mestizo (Spanish and Indian)
heritage. As the smallest country in the Continental America, about the
size of Massachusetts in the United States of America, El Salvador is
referred to as Pulgarcito de America, the 'Tom Thumb of the
Americas'. It has a volatile history of earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions in the nation's capital city, San Salvador, which also
suffered great damage in 1986. There are over 20 volcanoes, two of which
are active volcanoes, 300 rivers and 13.9 percent of the land is covered
by forests. El Salvador survived a devastating Civil War from 1980-1992
where approximately 75,000 people perished during the perils of this
national conflict (Foreign et. al, 2012).
At present, El Salvador enjoys a democratic republic governed by a
President who is elected through national elections. The country
allocates 3.6 percent of the national GDP for education purposes. The
history of early childhood education in El Salvador is as impressive.
The first nursery school comprised of a private enterprise in 1886. The
curriculum for the nursery school was based on the teachings of the
originator of kindergarten, a German educator, Fredrich Froebel. Many
years later, in 1941, the curriculum was adopted by the El Salvadorian
educational system as part of the, Organic Law on Public Education
(Foreign et. al, 2012).
History of Early Childhood Education
Although nursery schools were recognized in 1941, it was not until
the government of El Salvador accepted the United Nations Convention on
the Rights of the Child (CRC), which allowed the comprehensive
development of children to be adopted as a national policy. Since the
early 1990s, the El Salvadoran government implemented a variety of
childhood-related initiatives (CRC, 2012).
The Ministry of Education of El Salvador in 1991, initiated the
'Community-Managed Schools Program' (EDUCO), (Educacion con
Participacion de la Comunidad) with support from The World Bank,
parents, teacher associations, and local NGOs. The EDUCO program, which
envisages a self-managed private form of education, was strictly
intended to address problematic situations in rural areas (EDUCO, 2012;
The World Bank - El Salvador, 2012).
In each of the EDUCO (2012), schools there were self-sufficient
management by an elected Community Education Association, drawn from the
parents of students. In these schools, the associations were contracted
by the Ministry of Education to deliver given curriculum to an agreed
number of students, and were also responsible for contracting and
dismissing teachers, as well as equipping and maintaining the schools
(Ministry of Education-El Salvador, 2012). "Two major policies for
early childhood have been approved in El Salvador. One is the
comprehensive childhood care envisioned by the, 'National Policy
for the Comprehensive Development of Children and Adolescents'
(Politica Nacional para el Desarrollo Integral de la Ninez y
Adolescencia (PNDINA). The other is the universalization of nursery
education, with priority for 6-year-olds, mandated by the 'National
Education Plan 2021'." (Plan Nacional de Educacion, 2021, p.
45)
In relation to early childhood education, the National Education
Plan 2021 recognizes "Children's learning experiences from
birth to six are crucial for improving their prospects of success in
basic education." (Plan Nacional de Educacion 2021, p. 20) It
stresses children's need for an all-round support system and
commits the Ministry of Education to expanding the formal education
supply, with the support of communities. Similarly, it states, "The
essential goal of education is the all-round development of Salvadoran
children--physical, emotional, social, moral and spiritual." (Plan
Nacional de Educacion 2021, p. 13)
An ambitious policy for the improvement of early childhood
education in El Salvador is the implementation of these policies which
have been hampered by a complex multi-level bureaucratic system and
unpredictable budgetary allocations. Thus, El Salvador's economic
policy constrains social spending. It suggests that educational
expenditures at 3.6 percent of the GDP are not predicted to increase. If
that trend continues, then the policies relating to the public access to
education under six years of age will be adversely affected (Foreign et.
al, 2012).
Realities of Public Education
The educational system of El Salvador is divided into preschool,
primary, secondary and higher education. The terms, preschool and
kindergarten, are used interchangeably. Preschool education is for
children who are between two through six years of age. Refer to table 2
which shows Gross and Net rates of Preschool Education Enrollment in El
Salvador from 1990 through 2006.
At age seven, the Primary grades begin compulsory education which
lasts until grade nine. The policy states that education is tuition-free
through high school. Even though tuition may not be charged to students,
there remain school expenses including: textbooks, school uniforms and
other school-related supplies. After six years of basic education,
elementary and middle school, students have the option of attending
either a two or a three year high school. The two-year high school
program prepares students to attend a university, whereas the three-year
program prepares the students for a vocational career (The World Bank -
El Salvador, 2012).
The public educational system in El Salvador is severely lacking in
educational-related resources. There are too few schools and teachers
available in the rural areas of the country. Moreover, it is common for
class sizes in the public schools to reach more than forty students per
one classroom teacher. Those families who can afford an education often
choose the option of private education for their children. Families from
a lower socio-economic status are relegated to send their children to
public schools. On "... average, children complete 5.5 grade
levels. Many students in rural areas are denied nine years of compulsory
education due to a lack of schools. Often students are withdrawn from
school to work to increase their family's income." (EIIE,
2012, p. 1)
EL Salvador's Community-Managed Schools Program (EDUCO, 2012)
has been very successful in expanding educational opportunities for the
poor in rural areas. Decentralization has also been instrumental in
helping families and communities become more involved in the education
of their children (EDUCO, 2012; The World Bank - El Salvador, 2012).
Reflections and Recommendations
After undergoing a twelve year-civil war that left thousands of
children abandoned, homeless and orphaned, El Salvador began
reorganizing the educational system. Several recommendations ensure
those policies that currently exist and for those policies proposed in
the future will be put into practices which include the following:
* Most children living in the rural areas of the country do not
receive the same quality of basic education services that children in
urban areas receive. Programs and policies which address this inequity
are needed.
* More early childhood teachers and school directors/principals
require more pre-service and in-service educational training.
* Providing educational opportunities for young children's
family members and ways to involve them in the education and care of
their children at school.
* The Ministries of Health and Education in El Salvador need to
develop policies which insure more effective decentralized monetary
investment in the educational services to young children and their
families.
* Positive linkages to the private sector need to be encouraged and
enhanced. The private sector includes private schools and companies
located in El Salvador and international grants, companies and programs
which expand opportunities for young Salvadorian children (EDUCO, 2012;
World Bank El Salvador, 2012).
Several additional innovative programs ensure and provide that
children in El Salvador receive a successful basic education. A few of
these programs are described below:
* USAID/El Salvador has been improving the access to and quality of
basic education to children in poor rural areas. USAID/El Salvador is in
its third decade improving the quality of early childhood and preschool
education. This project is the largest bilateral donor supporting
education in the country.
* EDIFAM: Early Childhood Family Education Activity was implemented
by the Instituto Salvadoreno para el Desarrollo Integral de la Ninez y
la Adolescencia (Institute Salvadorian for Integrated Development of
Children and Youth, ISDINA), including; Ministries of Education and
Health, UNICEF, American Institutes for Research, Education Development
Center, Save the Children, and Sesame Street Workshop. This activity
concentrated on children younger than six years of age. It targeted
programs to help twenty percent of rural children under the age of six
which previously did not participate in formal or nonformal preschool
education. There is a relationship between a lack of access to quality
early childhood care, education and learning problems including dropout
and repetition in primary school. EDIFAM benefits young children in ways
which include; training of 450 preschool and 50 pedagogical advisers in
early childhood theory and classroom methods. As a result of this
training, 13,000 children benefit from teachers and advisers'
improving preschool teaching practices.
* EXCELL: Excellence in Classroom at the Local Level (Social Sector
Reform, Phase 2) was implemented by the American Institutes for Research
and Academy for Educational Development with the Joseph P. Kennedy, Jr.
Foundation. This project emphasized the improvements of language and
math instruction, through focusing on the pedagogical leadership of
school principals (EDUCO, 2012; UNICEF, 2012). "The underlying
assumption was that betterprepared principals would exercise improved
instructional leadership vis-a-vis teachers, parents, and children--thus
leading to better implementation of educational policies and improved
classroom quality." (ISDINA, 2012, p.12)
Provisions for Early Childhood Education in Mexico
Country Profile
The country of Mexico is located in North America and is bordered
by the United States to the north, Belize and Guatemala to the south;
Gulf of Mexico to the east and Pacific Ocean to the west. The area of
the country is 1,972,550 square kilometers (761,601 square miles), or
nearly three times the size of the, State of Texas in the United States
of America (Encyclopedia of the Nations, 2012).
A country of varied terrain, Mexico's landscape reaches
mountainous areas, deserts, plateaus and low ocean-side plains. It was
governed by Spain until independence was gained in 1821. Unfortunately,
with the independence of Mexico's political distresses were just
beginning and sporadically have continued to the present. Since, 2007,
along with political upheavals, Mexico's powerful drug-trafficking
organizations have engaged in feuding which have resulted in tens of
thousands of drug-related homicides (Geographia, 2012).
There are approximately 101 million people living in Mexico, which
include: 12.4 million children under the age of six and 1.5 million
children coming from indigenous language groups with 8.6 million ranging
three through six. The literacy rate of the country can be defined as,
those who are 15 years of age and older and who are also able to read
and write at 86.1 percent. Since 2000, Mexico developed policies to
improve the quality, availability and quantity of services for the
education of young children. The investment in education is considered
4.8 percent of the national GDP (Geographia, 2012; The World Bank -
Mexico, 2012).
Status of and Policies for Early Childhood Education
The diversity of Mexico is comprised of 32 states and 2,443
municipalities incorporating various local governments. There is more
than one system in Mexico for the organization of early childhood
education. "At present there are several sub-systems operating,
with relatively loose coordination, under the auspices of different
ministries, notably, Education (SEP) and Social Development (SEDESOL);
under different social security institutes (IMSS and ISSSTE); and under
other national auspices, e.g. the National System for Integral Family
Development (DIF), the National Council for Educational Promotion
(CONAFE), as well as private organizations." (OECD), 2006, p. 378)
Children from 0-3 years of age have limited access to education.
Only three percent of children in the youngest age group attend
preschool. The existing preschool programs in Mexico are designated for
children 3-6 years of age. Consistently, there are three types of
preschools; the general preschool program, the indigenous preschool
program administered by a special division and, the community
preschools. Eighty-eight percent of preschool-aged children in rural and
urban areas attend school. Nevertheless, there are more preschools in
urban areas; fewer educational opportunities for young indigenous
children as well as, for those who live in rural areas. Most of the
schools are open for three or four hours per day Monday through Friday.
In the urban areas, there are 'mixed preschools' (jardines
mixtos). These programs combine a regular preschool with an additional
day-long care program to create a 'mixed preschool' program
(OECD, 2006; The World Bank - Mexico, 2012).
Quality and Availability of Programs and Opportunities for Young
Children
With approximately 80 percent of the administration for early
childhood education settings in Mexico is decentralized within the
states. Compulsory primary schools traditionally begin at the age of six
however, the policy changed in November 2002 with introducing, The Law
of Obligatory Pre-schooling November 2002, endorsed in 2009, that all
parents must enroll their children in preschool at the age of three
(OECD, 2006).
Mexico by far is one of the few countries in the world that
mandates education for three year old children. Even though a mandate is
in order, the reality is quite different. The attendance in each of the
thirty-two states varies greatly from one to another. For example,
"Although over 81 percent of the children are enrolled at five
years, only slightly over half the children (55 percent) of the total
three through six-year-old population is currently enrolled. Enrollment
ratios are essentially the same for girls and boys." (OECD 2006, p.
381)
Summary and Recommendations
In Mexico, there is a gap in early childhood education that exists
between practice and policy, the administrations of early childhood
programs from state to state, and the differences in quality and funding
of schools for young children. The following are recommendations to
increase the availability and value of programs for the youngest of
children:
* Expand the quality of instruction for young Mexican children.
* Provide pre-service-in-service training for Mexican teachers of
young children.
* Serve indigenous children and those who live in poor rural areas
of Mexico.
* Develop more efficient, decentralized administration and funding
of early
childhood education (OECD, 2006, p. 379).
Over time, Mexico has improved access to early childhood education
which has been recognized for its policy relating to three year-old
children. Programs for young children have grown approximately 2 percent
per capita year as there began a significant increase in school
enrollments from 1975 to 1983. In the future, the challenge continues to
provide programs of uniform quality and accessibility for all of the
children in Mexico (OECD, 2006; The World Bank--Mexico, 2012).
Birth--Grade 6 Basic Education in Peru
Country Profile
The Republic of Peru is the third largest country in South America
and the 19th in the world. Peru is 496,222 square miles and is smaller
than the State of Alaska. It is located in the central part of South
America and is bordered by Ecuador and Colombia to the north, Brazil and
Bolivia to the east, Chile to the south and has a 1,400-mile desert
coastal line along the Pacific Ocean to the west (The World Bank - Peru,
2012).
In Peru, the western coastal plains are separated from the eastern
lowland jungle of the Amazon Basin by the Andes Mountains. Peru shares
Lake Titicaca, the world's highest navigable lake, with Bolivia and
is known for the 200-mile width of a corridor along the 1,544-mile
Pacific border. The Andes Mountains run through the length of the
country with 40 mountains higher than 19,000 feet. Historically, Peru
contains the most famous of the 'Inca Empire's' ruins,
the hidden city of 'Machu Picchu', which is a popular tourist
destination in the Andes Mountains (The World Bank - Peru, 2012).
The population of Peru ranges from approximately 29,180,900 people
which have a large indigenous population that consist primarily of
'Quechuan and Aymara' cultures. These two ethnic groups live
from the highlands to the coastal lines, with tribes in the remote
depths of the Peruvian Amazon Rainforest. Close to 70 percent of the
people also live in urban areas. The literacy rate defined for people
age 15 and older who can read and write is at approximately 93 percent
for men and 82.1 percent for women. In Peru, 2.7 percent of the national
GDP is spent for educational programs and services (The World Bank
-Peru, 2012).
Programs on Behalf of Young Children
In 1972, the Peruvian Ministry of Education introduced national
education reforms which expanded the concept of early childhood
education to include children below the age of five. The Ministry of
Education established preschools, known as initial education programs
and parental programs. The Ministry of Education encouraged local
governments to establish communitybased childcare centers (Chavez, al
et. 2000, p.159). Prior to this date, initial education was called
preschool (The World Bank - Peru, 2012).
Since 1970, Peru has had two types of community-based, government
funded programs. The first, Programas no Escolarizados de Educacion
Inicial (PRONOEI), is a successful nonschool programs for early
education. A second program, (Centros de Educacion Inicial, early
education centres, CEIs), is considered professionally and resourcefully
staffed. Children who are in need, especially those living in rural
areas, benefit mostly from PRONOEIs. Those children living in urban
settings and more advantaged areas benefit the most from CEIs (The World
Bank-Peru, 2012; UNICEF-Peru, 2012).
In 1993 the Ministry of Education and UNICEF developed 'Wawa
Wasi', the national home day care centers. These programs operate
in conjunction with the National Food Aid Program, the National Family
Welfare Institute, churches and several other organizations. The '
Wawa Wasi' serves the poorest of Peruvian areas and is
community-based. In each location there is a care-giver trained in basic
nutrition and child-care and is designated as the 'Wawa Wasi'
community's caregiver. For a small fee any woman who is working and
has children younger than three years of age may leave her child for
daily child care with the community's caregiver. The services of
the 'Wawa Wasi' provide a parent's association and
parenting education as part of this program (The World Bank-Peru, 2012;
UNICEF-Peru, 2012).
The programs of 'PRONOEI, CEI and Wawa Wasi' have been
very effective in providing educational services to Peruvian children
and their families. Peru has made substantial attempts to provide
education for young children, support and training for their families.
Consequently, there is still a constant need to provide access for
quality services and education for the young children in Peru (The World
Bank-Peru, 2012; UNICEF-Peru, 2012).
Equity and Equality of Early Childhood Education
The issues of equity and equality of Peru cannot be overlooked
primarily because the education of children in rural and urban settings
are substantially different. As is true in other Latin countries,
educational services for young children in Peru are mostly prevalent in
urban communities. Ninety-two percent of children three years of age and
older living in urban areas have attended preschool whereas
seventy-eight percent of rural children three years of age and older
have gone to preschool. "In urban communities, 15.9 percent of the
'most-poor' children did not access pre-school, compared to
2.4 percent of the 'least poor'. In rural communities, 34.9
per cent of the 'most-poor' children did not access
pre-school, compared to 6.3 percent of the, 'least-
poor'." (Woodhead, 2009, p. 10) These statistics confirm that
rates of attendance in preschool are linked to poverty levels for both
urban and rural children.
A current Peruvian national project helps those children who are
three to five years of age living in rural areas. This project began in
2011 in the rural areas of Ayacucho, Huancavelica and Huanuco, Peru.
Those three areas were chosen due to poverty levels and high rates of
grade repetition among children who attend school. Peru was given a $25
million loan, from the InterAmerican Development Bank (IDB). This loan
was based upon the development of schools, improving the teaching
methods including bilingual and multicultural awareness. In addition,
the loan was given to help schools involve families in the educational
lives of children. The program will also include equipping,
rehabilitating and replacing one hundred and ninety early childhood
centers while providing maintenance plans for an additional two hundred
and ninetysix centers in three high-need rural areas. The success of
this project has been extremely encouraging. However, there remains an
overwhelming need to address the educational needs of young children
living in Peru (The World Fact Book, 2008).
Assessing the Present and Looking Forward to the Future
Quality education which is readily available for young children is
needed in Peru. More than 11 percent of Peruvian families earn below
$1.00 per day and 37 percent of women work ten or more hours a day away
from home. At present, only a quarter of Peru's four year-old
children and only three of every two hundred children under the age of
three attend educational programs (The World Fact book, 2008).
Susan Goldmark (2012), regional director for Bolivia, Chile,
Ecuador, Peru and Venezuela, UNICEF commented, "All Peruvian
children, regardless of where they were born, the educational level of
their parents, the color of their skin or the language their family
speaks, should have the same opportunities of access to basic
healthcare, safe water, sanitation, nutrition and a quality basic
education." (UNICEF, 2012, p. 1)
Presently, an additional Peruvian plan, The National Plan of Action
for Childhood 2002 2010, which was developed by The Ministry for
Women's Affairs and Human Development, (Promudeh Ministerio de
Promocion de la Mujer y del Desarrollo Humano, PROMUDEH). The aim of
this plan is to improve human rights of Peruvian children and
adolescents. The implementation of this plan has been designated through
various states with the first strategic objective to ensure a healthy
life for boys and girls from birth to age five. The expected outcomes
are as follows:
* creation of conditions for healthy and safe motherhood and birth;
* universal rights of all boys and girls to a name and identity;
* supplementary nourishment for all children under the age of two;
* special needs screenings, detected, accommodated and
rehabilitated;
* conditions to secure the right to life of all boys and girls;
* improvement of nutritional status;
* integrated development of children from an early age (The World
Fact Book Peru, 2010).
The aims of this project are ambitious and commendable but the
results have not been published. Looking forward to the future, there is
a necessity to evaluate and address the educational needs of the young
children of Peru. Following are a few suggestions for improving the
status, equality and quality of programs for young children in Peru:
* Develop a framework for the evaluation, monitoring and comparison
of the programs and policies.
* Establish a national-level system for assessing children's
development and school readiness.
* Provide informal educational opportunities for families of
children less than six years of age.
* Encourage training of early childhood teachers and teacher
assistants.
* Recognize the bilingual need for teachers to communicate orally
and in writing both in Spanish and in their student's first
language.
* Enhance private, secular, church-sponsored and international
programs which invest in the improvement of education for Peruvian
children (The World Fact Book-Peru, 2010).
Compared with 18 other countries of Latin America and the
Caribbean, utilized the Human Opportunities Index (HOI); a measurement
tool introduced in 2009, in a World Bank Study for Latin America and the
Caribbean (World Bank Study, 2009).
The HOI also measures inequality of opportunities in access to a
specific group of goods and services--which are referred to as
'basic opportunities'--and their relationship with a set of
'circumstances' for a particular population segment: children
and young people under the age of 18. This study included variables such
as: gender, location (urban and rural), altitude of district of
residence, education and income of the household head, family structure
(number of siblings and number of parents present) and ethnic groups.
Peru ranked sixth in completing the primary school on time. (World Book
Study, et. al, 2009).
Additional key HOI findings for Peru include:
* The index for completing primary school on time, 50 (index ranges
from 0 to 100), which continues to be low given the insufficient
coverage as well as, the unequal distribution of opportunities.
* Successful in the expansion of coverage with pre-school
education.
* With respect to infrastructure, HOI performance was uneven. The
HOI for cellular telephones grew significantly, from 8 to 52 between
2004 and 2009, although marked disparities persist.
* The HOI for access to electricity rose from 52 to 67 whereas that
of sanitation increased from 44 to 55, in both cases due to improved
coverage and more equitable distribution.
* In the case of safe water, improvements were limited.
Over the past few years educational programs for young Peruvian
children and their families have benefited from an infusion of funds
from international sources. The availability of educational
opportunities for young children in Peru has been widely discussed,
however, the equality of educational services to the urban community as
compared to the rural and poor still remains inconsistent (The World
Fact Book-Peru, 2012; UNICEF, 2012).
Conclusion
As the foregoing review of the available literature demonstrates
national administrators in the Latin American countries chosen for this
review have stated their intent to provide quality early childhood
education to the youngest of their citizens. With that endeavor they
have been supported by an array of private, public and international
organizations and groups. Despite this intent, the literature shows
there is a persistent disparity in the quantity and quality of
educational services to young children. The disparity is primarily a
function of affluence and geography. The more affluent the family, the
more likely it is they will receive a quality program for children
before the age of 6. There will also be more opportunity for parents to
participate and share in the education of their child's education.
The less affluent and those living in poverty and/or rural areas, have
little or no access to quality early childhood programs and education.
Despite the differences in the percentage of the GDP in Belize,
Brazil, El Salvador, Mexico and Peru, all are committed to providing
quality education and they share a heritage of similar, unresolved
challenges. Those challenges include the absence of accessible high
quality early childhood programs which result from a shortage of
funding, materials and support for early childhood teacher training.
These challenges also include the absence of cooperation from families
who choose to have their young children work to help support the family
instead of attending school. Although these countries share many of the
same challenges, it is encouraging that so many diverse countries
express intent to improve the educational experiences for their young
children. In addition, table 4 illustrates the school life expectance in
Latin American countries.
[TABLE 4 OMITTED]
Implications for Public Policy
In terms of public policy, the educational efforts reviewed in this
paper have in common what tends to be a universal struggle in the
provision of early childhood education. That struggle is a lack of
funding and the existence of a functional infrastructure for the
delivery of educational services for young children. Each of the
reviewed countries in this paper have repeatedly expressed their
intention to provide quality early childhood education services. That
intention is evident in the legislation and programs they have
established to date. The analysis reveals that even the minimally funded
programs in some of the nations examined lack administrative integrity.
It is often necessary for a period of time to pass during which the
process of trial and error results in the recognition of deficiencies.
To fulfill the established intents of the public policies in each
of the previously listed Central American and South American countries,
it will be necessary to build cadres of well-educated and capable
administrators, caregivers and teachers. Those administrators should be
given appropriate funding and the authority to fulfill the goals of the
stated legislation and policies. Simultaneously it will be necessary for
each country to establish internal mechanisms for long-term best
interest of education for all young children.
Those mechanisms need to be financially secure and politically
independent. The primary considerations for public policy are
accessibility, infrastructure stability, well trained administrators and
teachers and include organizational sustainability. Simple expressions
of these intentions are necessary. However; they do not in themselves
build a system that will deliver a quality education for all young
children.
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Table 1: Pre-primary Education, Latin America, and other Regions - 2007
Gross school enrolment in pre-primary education in Latin
America, compared to other regions of the world, 2007
Worldwide 42.1
East Asia and Pacific 47
Sub Saharan Africa 15
N.America & Europe 80.9
Latin America 65
Caribbean 74
Arab States 19
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics
Note: Table made from bar graph.
Table 2: Central America, Gross, Net rates of Preschool Education
Enrollment, 1990-2006
Gross enrollment
rate
Table 3: Gross and net Ages 1990 1990
rates of preschool 2003
education enrollment 2006
Central America 30.64
Belize 3-4 23.2 28.8 -- --
Costa Rica 4-5 61.7 60.9 -- 61.4
El Salvador 4-6 21.0' 48.6 -- --
Guatemala 5-6 26.0' 55.2 56.8 * --
Honduras 4-6 17.1'' 21.4 -- --
Nicaragua 3-6 12.1 27.7 32.5 * --
Panama 4-5 53.4 55.8 --
Reference
figures 43.6 60.9 -- --
for Latin
America
Net enrollment Girl/boy ratio-
rate GER
Table 3: Gross and net 2003 2004-6 1998 2003
rates of preschool
education enrollment
Central America 42.62
Belize 27.8 -- 1.03 1.07
Costa Rica 43.3 -- 1.02 1.02
El Salvador 43.6 -- 1.05 1.06
Guatemala 41.1 46.0* 0.99 1.01
Honduras 21.4 -- ... 1.05
Nicaragua 27.7 32.5* 1.02 1.03
Panama 52.0 -- 0.96 1.01
Reference
figures 50.6 -- 1.02 1.02
for Latin
America
Source: Cefas Asensio, Education for All Global Monitoring Report
2006, UNESCO, with data from 1990, 1998 and 2003,
http://gmr.uis.unesco.org/. 1991, data taken from:
http://www.campus-oei.org/observatorio. Statistical reports from El
Salvador and Guatemala, with reference to the UNESCO Statistical
Yearbook, 1999.
Statistics for 1990-1999. Secretaria de Educacion/UNESCO, December
1999. 2005 data. Guatemalan Ministry of Education and Nicaraguan
Ministry of Education, Culture
Literacy Rate and Child Labor
Table 3: Educational Statistics in Brazil, 2005-2010
Youth (15-24 years) literacy rate (%), 2005-2010*, male97
Youth (15-24 years) literacy rate (%), 2005-2010*, female99
Number per 100 population, 2010, mobile phones 104
Number per 100 population, 2010, Internet users 41
Pre-primary school participation, Gross enrolment ratio (%),
2007-2010*, male65
Pre-primary school participation, Gross enrolment ratio (%),
2007-2010*, female65
Primary school participation, Gross enrolment ratio (%),
2007-2010*, male132
Primary school participation, Gross enrolment ratio (%),
2007-2010*, female123
Primary school participation, Net enrolment ratio (%), 2007-2010*,
male96
Primary school participation, Net enrolment ratio (%), 2007-2010*,
female94
Primary school participation, Net attendance ratio (%), 2005-2010*,
male95
Primary school participation, Net attendance ratio (%), 2005-2010*,
female95
Primary school participation, Survival rate to last primary grade
(%), 2006-2009, Admin. data
Primary school participation, Survival rate to last primary grade
(%), 2005-2010, Survey data88
Secondary school participation, Net enrolment ratio (%),
2007-2010*, male78
Secondary school participation, Net enrolment ratio (%),
2007-2010*, female85
Secondary school participation, Net attendance ratio (%),
2005-2010*, male74
Secondary school participation, Net attendance ratio (%),
2005-2010*, female80
Source: Adult literacy--United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO), including the Education for All
2000 Assessment. Phone and Internet use--International
Telecommunications Union, Yearbook of Statistics 1992-2001. Primary
and secondary school enrolment--UNESCO, including the Education for
All 2000 Assessment. Net primary school attendance--Demographic and
Health Surveys (DHS) and Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS).
Reaching grade five--Admin data: UNESCO Institute for Statistics,
including the Education for All 2000 Assessment. Survey data: DHS
and MICS.
