Diakonia, sustainability, and climate change.

Toroitich, Isaiah Kipyegon ; Kerber, Guillermo

The diaconal work of the churches, a core component of their identity and mission, has aimed at enhancing the living conditions of the people, especially the poor and more vulnerable. In this perspective, the pursuit of sustainable communities has become a common thread. Taking this into account, diakonia has had a broader understanding, looking not only at human beings but at the whole creation, which is under threat, threat being climate change. This article revisits the concept of sustainability and sustainable development from the social, political, and ecumenical perspective and confronts them with the challenge of climate change and its key discussions at international negotiations. Taking into account what the World Council of Churches (WCC) and Action by Churches Together (ACT) Alliance have been doing in these areas, based on the biblical and theological understandings of the integrity of creation and justice, the authors link the struggle for sustainability and climate justice to ongoing discussions led by ACT Alliance on the changing development paradigm and the call to join the pilgrimage of justice and peace made by the participants of the WCC assembly in 2013.

Sustainability and Sustainable Development: What Is at Stake?

Why is a concept such as sustainability still relevant today in the debate about diakonia? The reality that the planet and its resources are finite and that the current economic growth model, coupled with population growth and environmental degradation, has violated planetary boundaries is not a new realization. As early as the 1960s and 1970s, many scholars had already seen the signs that several factors would be encountered by the limits of the natural environment.

The reason, given in the 1970s by the Club of Rome, is still valid today, if not even more relevant. The Club of Rome's report, Limits to Growth, (1) and others pointed out that within the parameters of the global economy, there could be a major collapse of world populations in the middle of the 21st century and that sustainability of life as we know may not be an option. In Limits to Growth, Meadows and his colleagues negated the idea that was then prominent among the global economic community that human ingenuity could overcome all shortages, and therefore there were no limits to growth.

In the 1960s and 1970s, the ecumenical movement had already started to grapple with the issue of sustainability. During the WCC Uppsala assembly in 1968, Indian economist Samuel Parmar pointed to the fact that economic growth in so-called developed countries was leading to overconsumption and did not address the growing gap between rich and poor. In the following years, the concern for sustainability was further developed with the poignant formulation by the Australian biologist Charles Birch in his speech to the WCC Nairobi Assembly in 1975: "The rich must live more simply so that the poor may simply live." The Nairobi Assembly clearly called for "a just, participatory and sustainable society."

In defining sustainability, it is useful to examine the definition of sustainable development. The Brundtland Commission (2) outlined sustainable development from the perspective of three key components. First, it is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs. Second is the implication that sustainable development has limits--limits imposed by the present state of technology and social organization on environmental resources and by the ability of the biosphere to absorb the effects of human activities. Third is the fact that human needs are basic and essential. Sustainability, then, in this regard, is also about the right to development for all, particularly the poor. This relationship between development and poor countries emerged at the WCC Canberra Assembly in 1991 when it affirmed:

   Humankind has failed to distinguish between growth and
   development... Growth for growth's sake ... is the strategy of the
   cancer cell. Growth for growth's sake is increase in size without
   control, without limit, in disregard for the system that sustains
   it. It ultimately results in degradation and death. Development on
   the other hand--like the strategy of the embryo--is getting the
   right things in the right places in the right amounts at the right
   times with the right relationships. Development, while supported
   both by growth and reduction of its parts, results in a
   self-sustaining whole.

Development, thus, is used in its positive sense--related to the right to development of poor countries--and is opposed to growth. But this was not the only position in the ecumenical movement in relationship to development. In the background document on globalization for the 1998 Harare assembly, there is a critique to the notion of sustainable development.

   Sustainable development, a concept prominent in international for
   a, still leaves powerful forces of globalization in command and
   does not question the underlying paradigm of continuous and
   unlimited progress and growth ... Four essentials for a
   life-centred vision need to be nurtured: participation as the
   optimal inclusion of all involved at all levels, equity as basic
   fairness that also extends to other life forms, accountability as
   the structuring of responsibility towards one another and earth
   itself, and sufficiency as the commitment to meet basic needs of
   all life possible and develop a quality of life that includes bread
   for all but is more than bread alone.

A crucial topic in the discussion on sustainability and sustainable development in the ecumenical agenda has been the notion of growth. Quantitative and especially economic growth has been a sine qua non component of the current development pattern. But economists such as Herman Daly, Bob Goudzwaard, and Marcos Arruda, together with theologians such as John Cobb and Leonardo Boff, (3) have underlined the necessity to shift from quantitative growth to qualitative growth to meet the needs of the poor while at the same time reducing and redirecting resources and production that are wasted by the overconsumption of the rich. Daly and Cobb, for instance, claim that the current economic system preaches the benefits of growth without taking into account the environment's inability to sustain it. To avoid the exhaustion of the world's ecosystem, they propose shifting from an economic system based on individual self-interest to one that focuses on community and considers both future generations and nonhuman populations. Economies where the main criteria for success are the increase of gross national product (GNP) and gross domestic product (GDP) should shift towards "economies of enough" that would support sustainable livelihoods, confronting greed and financial profits as main components of the prevailing development pattern. (4) A 2012 WCC statement summarizes some of these affirmations:

   The one-sided belief that social benefits automatically follow from
   economic (GDP) growth is misguided. Economic growth without
   constraints strangles the flourishing of our own natural habitat:
   climate change, deforestation, ocean acidification, biodiversity
   loss and so on. The ecological commons have been degraded and
   appropriated, through the use of military force, by the political
   and economic elite. Over-consumption based on the costs of
   uncovered debts generates massive social and ecological
   indebtedness, which are owed by the developed countries of global
   North to the global South, as well as indebtedness over against the
   Earth, is unjust and creates enormous pressure on future
   generations. (5)

Other definitions, such as that of the Board on Sustainable Development of the US National Academy of Sciences, make a clear distinction between sustainability and development. In its 1999 report, Our Common Journey: A Transition Towards Sustainability, it listed three categories that should be sustained: nature (the earth, biodiversity, and ecosystems), life support (ecosystem services, resources, and environment), and community (cultures, groups, and places). The board further listed three categories to be developed: people (child survival, life expectancy, education, equity, and equal opportunity), economy (wealth, productive sectors, consumption), and society (institutions, social capital, states, regions).

This distinction, while very useful, presents a challenge related to understanding sustainability from a utilitarian perspective. According to Kates, Parris, and Leiserowitz, (6) there are those who view nature and the environment as a source of service for supporting humankind, as opposed to those who see nature and the environment for their intrinsic value, rather than their utility for human beings. This perspective can be related to the two creation stories in the book of Genesis. While the first one places human beings at the top of the creation to dominate it, the second places human beings in creation (on the garden of Eden) to "care [for] and till it."

A more recent understanding of sustainability and sustainable development was inspired by the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development, which entrenched the definition along the so-called three pillars of sustainable development: economic, social, and environmental. In addition to the mutually reinforcing nature of the three pillars, the declaration that came out of the summit anticipated the implementation of sustainable development at national, regional, and global levels. (7)

Building on the ecumenical legacy, for ACT Alliance--a development and humanitarian network of churches and church-based organizations that is working in over 140 countries across the world--sustainability is viewed from a synthesis of the different perspectives represented above. Sustainability is primarily seen as a value that undergirds how members of the human race should view their own dignity, their resilience, and their relationships with one another and with the natural environment, as well as their heritage and legacy for posterity.

Furthermore, ACT Alliance has focused mainly on the human rights-based framing of sustainability or sustainable development. Under this framing, sustainable development is seen as a right for everyone, and institutions, particularly governments, have the responsibility to ensure that everyone has access to sustainable development. This has led to ACT Alliances' specialized focus of its advocacy on national, regional, and international policy and legislative platforms and processes, such as the United Nations, Rio+20, and UNFCCC, among others.

Sustainability in the Face of a Changing Climate

Climate change raises serious questions about the development and economic model upon which our lifestyles have been founded. According to the latest scientific findings of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), (8) there is now more than 95 percent certainty that climate change has been caused by human activities. The burning of fossil fuels in our bid to industrialize and develop is responsible for the emission of greenhouse gases (GHG) that cause climate change.

On the one hand, climate change is a result of unsustainable practices; on the other hand, it is one of the major threats to sustainability of lives and livelihoods, particularly of the poor and vulnerable. There is also a relatively clear understanding of what needs to be done to avert a climatic catastrophe, but there is a lack of political will and commitment to actually reduce or stop the burning of fossil fuels, even after myriad warnings from the scientific community.

In the WCC's understanding, human-induced climate change is being precipitated primarily by the current development pattern. In fact, the prevailing economic strategy promotes endless growth and production of goods and high-consumption lifestyles in the richer industrialized countries and wealthy elites throughout the world. Such patterns of development and consumption, through the increase of C02 emissions, deforestation, extractive industries, and other means, are leading to the depletion of critical natural resources, with life-threatening consequences for impoverished nations, low-lying island states, vulnerable groups and communities, and future generations. Based on these premises, at the Conference of Parties (COP) of the United Nations Framework Convention on climate change (UNFCCC) in December 2007, in Bali, Indonesia (COP 13), the statement of the WCC, "This far and no further: Act fast and act now," called for a change of paradigm "in the prevailing economic strategy of promoting endless growth and production of goods and a seemingly insatiable level of consumption ... [which] are leading to the depletion of critical natural resources and to extremely dangerous implications with climate change and development." (9)

A Multilateral Approach to Climate and Sustainability

As early as the 1960s, the world community had started to discuss the threat of climate change. According to the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), during the 1960s and 1970s, several highly publicized disastrous climatic events demonstrated how vulnerable food production and trade were, and how they depended on the Earth's climate system. The first climate conference was convened in 1979 by WMO, the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), the Food and Agriculture Organization, UNESCO and the World Health Organization. Earlier, in 1972, the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment had taken place in Stockholm, Sweden. This resulted in the creation of the UNEP. The UN World Food Conference, in Rome in 1974, recognized the role of climate in world food production. These and other conferences identified climate change as an important issue.

Perhaps the most important of these international gatherings was the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), also known as the Earth Summit or the Rio Summit. Key outcomes of this summit include the so-called three Rio Conventions (on climate change, desertification, and biodiversity) and the adoption of Agenda 21, an agenda for environment and development in the 21st century. Agenda 21' (10) elaborated a voluntary programme of action for sustainable development, and contained the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, (11) which recognizes each nation's right to pursue social and economic progress and assigned to states the responsibility of adopting a model of sustainable development. The Rio Declaration articulates 27 principles that are reflected in the conventions and set the basis for an ethical approach to the Rio instruments.

In relationship specifically to climate change, the United Nations Framework Convention in Climate Change (UNFCCC) was adopted at the Earth Summit, and came into force in 1994, with the ultimate aim of preventing "dangerous" human interference with the climate system (UNFCCC, 1992). This convention, together with its Kyoto Protocol, has for the past two decades set the international agenda on climate change. In a sense, the pace and the tone of climate change action, or inaction, has been determined and framed in the UNFCCC and its instruments and processes.

A major realization came into the global community in the early 2000s, when more dramatic weather events, either linked to climate change or not, became the order of the day. Droughts and floods in Africa left millions of people hungry and in untold suffering; floods in Asia led to loss of lives and livelihoods; severe storms in the Americas and rising sea levels in the Pacific brought climate change to the lips of many. Meanwhile, the Kyoto Protocol and its mechanisms, even with its significant support from the international community, were not delivering the requisite emissions reductions.

With the expiry of the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol in 2012, decisive findings of the 4th Assessment Report of the IPCCC in 2007, and greater awareness among communities, the Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC and the Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol in the late 2000s started to negotiate in earnest a legally binding climate agreement. There was a general push, (11) especially from governments in developing countries and civil society, for a fair, ambitious, and legally binding (FAB) agreement that would limit greenhouse gas emissions. Additionally, the narrative on climate change changed considerably to include emphasis on adaptation and the means of implementation for both adaptation and mitigation.

In 2007, the 13th Conference of the Parties (COP 13) launched the Bali Action Plan, which enumerated several critical pillars that were seen by many as representing the totality of action required to address climate change. The so-called Bali Pillars included mitigation, adaptation, finance, and technology development.

Most members of ACT Alliance and many other civil society organizations considered this a new hope and a good beginning for a comprehensive architecture to address climate change and sustainability. All energy was focused on the 2009 15th Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC (COP 15), which was supposed to deliver a new international climate change treaty. The anticipated agreement was not established in COP 15. On the contrary, the conference, which took place in Copenhagen, Denmark, failed to deliver an agreement, casting significant doubt on the effectiveness and legitimacy of multilateralism.

While this was a big blow to the hopes of many, particularly the nations and peoples whose lives and livelihoods were already facing serious impacts of climate change, it was also a turning point in the understanding of many civil society organizations and governments. It was a clear indication that the context and dynamics around policy and development had changed. The signs of a changing development paradigm and context were beginning to show.

The contexts upon which the UNFCCC and other multilateral instruments were created in 1992 had changed drastically: the division of countries into developed and developing, and also the Annex 1 and Non-Annex 1 cleavage that shaped instruments such as the Kyoto Protocol, started to be challenged. Some government officials felt that certain countries, notably the so-called emerging economies, such as Brazil, South Africa, India, and China (BASIC countries), were no longer as poor as they were in the 1990s and had grown into considerable emitters of greenhouse gases. Others in the traditional developed country cluster felt that their own economic power had, in fact, dropped and that they should therefore not be treated equally with rich countries. The resultant impasse has left the multilateral climate change negotiation, as well as other processes, including the post-2015 development agenda and key Rio processes, in shambles.

Sustainability and Adaptation

The UNFCCC describes adaptation as the adjustments in ecological, social, or economic systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli and their effects or impacts. It refers to changes in processes, practices, and structures to moderate potential damages or to benefit from opportunities associated with climate change. (12)

Adaptation is a problematic concept because it can quite simply be understood as a passive coping mechanism instead of action to stop climate change. It can also easily be seen as a non-confrontational way to avoid the difficult politics around emission reduction and to focus mainly on vulnerability and resilience.

While the issues and controversies surrounding adaptation may be real and in many cases legitimate, several factors underpin the true application of adaptation towards climate change. First, the impact of climate change is already affecting millions of people throughout the world, making it a real and present threat to lives and livelihoods. This makes action to build resilience, minimize the risk, or otherwise cope with the changes necessary.

In ACT Alliance's policy on adaptation, there is a clear emphasis on prioritizing the adaptation needs of the poor. It recognizes that millions of people are vulnerable because they are poor and depend directly on natural resources; live in densely populated, risk-prone areas; or lack the money, property rights, and information needed to adjust. Poor people's access to sufficient food, clean water, shelter, and health care is seriously compromised by climate change. (13)

Adaptation to climate change impact from this perspective should be seen as different from normal aid and donor support for poor countries and communities. It is mainly about the joint responsibility of the world to address a serious global challenge that requires massive amounts of funding, technology, and capacity building. Many also see this as the responsibility of developed countries because of their historical and current emissions, which are mainly responsible for global warming.

Another important dimension to adaptation to climate change and resilience is the contribution of local communities. It is only fair to acknowledge the role that many

communities throughout the world are playing to respond to a quickly changing environment. The sustainability and relevance of climate change adaptation depend entirely on the role of these communities, who continue to cultivate meaningful relationship with their natural environment and with each other in the bid to sustain their lives. This reality calls on the international community and policy makers to focus more on concepts such as community-based adaptation programmes rather than top-down imperatives.

Lastly, there is a growing realization that unless there is adequate adaptation--meaning enough funds, technology, and capacity to support adaptation programmes at all levels --the damage caused by climate change will profoundly multiply with every passing year. The ongoing negotiation on loss and damage resulting from climate change is a stark testimony to this risk. These present climate change adaptation as a challenge that must be addressed urgently, because the lives of millions of people depend on it; as something that should be driven by communities affected, rather than delivered from a top-down perspective; and as something requiring adequate means of implementation, or else the magnitude of the resultant loss and damage will be multiplied.

Sustainability and Mitigation

There have been two prominent dimensions of mitigation. First and foremost, mitigation involves reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Second, it is about the difficult task of attempting to remove the greenhouse gases that have already been emitted into the atmosphere. Societies can respond to climate change by reducing GHG emissions and enhancing sinks and reservoirs. The capacity to do so depends on socio-economic and environmental circumstances and the availability of information and technology. (14)

In planetary boundaries terms, mitigation is about halting our destructive appetite for fossil fuels and taking big steps backwards in the bid to undo the damage we have caused to the environment and to others. It starts with recognizing that the human community has been wrong and that the foundation upon which we have built our economies was bad, and as a result we have caused the destruction of life and the planet.

Many development agencies, including ACT Alliance, have looked at mitigation from a low-carbon development perspective, with a focus on the right to development for all. This dimension of mitigation is also growing in popularity, especially when framed within changing development paradigm and sustainability discussions. In the current development dispensations, a global move to low-carbon development is vital to keep the world's average temperature well below a 2[degrees]C rise, beyond which humanity faces catastrophic and irreversible climate change.

Embarking on a low-carbon or a zero-carbon development pathway must begin with developed countries, which bear the greatest amount of responsibility based on their capability and contribution to terms of emissions. It will mean building renewable energy systems that will transform economies, infrastructures, transportation, agricultural production, and life in its entirety. For developing countries, it means a critical shift to building economies and development pathways that have low carbon intensity. This requires a new level of global partnerships and financial and technological support. On the other hand, this approach should complement the push of governments and industry leaders in developed countries and emerging economies to drive the shift from unsustainable fossil fuel to renewable energy, leading to the reduction of emissions.

Sustainability in the Context of the Integrity of Creation and Climate Justice

Many still may ask why churches, the ecumenical movement at large, the WCC, and ACT Alliance in particular, have given special attention to the issue of sustainability and climate change. As spelled out before, the question of sustainability has a long history in the ecumenical movement and has generated interesting debates in both ACT Alliance and the WCC assemblies and consultations. (15)

From an ecumenical theological perspective, two biblical imperatives guide the approach to these topics: the integrity of creation and the commitment to justice. (16)

A WCC statement from 2007 stressed that "the Bible teaches the wholeness of creation: Life is created, sustained and made whole by the power of God's Holy Spirit (Genesis 1; Romans 8). When creation is threatened by climate change we are called to speak out and act as an expression of our commitment to life, justice and love." (17)

The biblical concept of justice constitutes the other key concept. The God of the Bible is a God who does justice, who cares, who loves and gives security to the poor and the vulnerable, represented by the widow, the orphan, and the stranger in many biblical texts. Accordingly, human beings need to act justly, which means protecting the vulnerable ones. (18) The vulnerability of human beings is related to the vulnerability of the earth. Leonardo Boff, for instance, says that the cry of the poor is echoed by the cry of the earth. Based on the notion of the groaning of creation (Rom. 8:22), Boff calls for widening the meaning of the option for the poor, which has been a key component in the ecumenical movement. This option should include an option for the most threatened beings and species, being aware that the most threatened being in creation is planet earth itself. (19)

From this perspective, stating the different dimensions of the climate change crisis (ecological, social, economic, cultural, and political), ecumenical delegates at COP in 2010 called for a holistic approach and stressed that

   in the churches' perspective, justice must be the basic criterion
   of applied ethics in all decisions concerning the measures to cope
   with climate change. Although climate change is a global issue
   affecting all peoples and nations, those who are and will
   increasingly be affected by negative climate change consequences
   are the vulnerable communities who have contributed the least to
   global emissions. (20)

This care for creation and climate justice approach has not been exclusive to Christian theology. It has also been reflected in some interfaith statements, such as the Uppsala Interfaith Climate Manifesto 2008: "From religious traditions, with different approaches to religious life, we all share the responsibility of being conscious caretakers of our home, planet Earth." And the religious leaders commit themselves "to focus on the struggle against global warming and draw upon our innermost religious convictions about the meaning of life. This commitment is a deeply spiritual question concerning justice, peace and hope for a future in love and solidarity with all human beings and the whole of creation."

Stressing the integrity of creation and the imperatives of caring for creation and promoting climate justice constitutes a strong ethical religious stance. And this ethical understanding of climate change is not coming exclusively from religious organizations, but also from state parties of the Convention, NGOs, and academia. (21) The basis for this interpretation comes from the previously mentioned Rio principles, which have been reflected in article 3 of the UNFCCC. This article presents the principles that should guide the international community when responding to climate change challenges. Principle 1 refers to critical points: the concern for present and future generations; equity as a basis for climate measures; the "common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities"; and the leading role that developed countries should have in combating climate change. Principle 2 pays special attention to the needs and circumstances of developing countries and vulnerable communities that deserve particular consideration. The so-called precautionary principle is addressed in Principle 3, stressing the importance of anticipating, preventing, or minimizing the causes and mitigating the effects. The right to development, specifically sustainable development, is addressed in Principle 4, while links between climate change and economics are highlighted in Principle 5. Over the last decades, the WCC has insisted on looking at all these principles in a holistic way, because of their intimate relationship.

An Ecumenical Call for Sustainability and Climate Justice in the Context of the Pilgrimage of Justice and Peace

The WCC assembly in Busan, Republic of Korea, called churches and Christians to join a pilgrimage of justice and peace. (22) The pursuit of sustainable communities and climate justice is at the core of this pilgrimage.

The pilgrimage has not just started. It has a long history, not only of decades, as we tried to show in this article, but of centuries, based on the pilgrimages of the patriarchs in the Hebrew Bible, like Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, who walked thousands of kilometres to reach a land of justice and peace. Or, even earlier, Noah, who built the ark in order to survive the flood (Gen. 6-9) and who, from being an environmentally displaced person (or climate refugee) became a pilgrim. (23) The story of Noah and the ark is found in earlier versions in Sumerian and Babylonian stories, and is also found in traditional religious stories in Africa, Asia, the Americas, and the Pacific. It is a strong symbol of hope and salvation for today's sustainability and climate crises.

In the previous sections, we stressed that sustainability and climate are closely related to justice. They are also intimately linked to peace. The International Ecumenical Peace Convocation clearly stated that there is no peace on earth without peace with the earth, although violence against peoples and earth is spread throughout all the world's regions and cultures. (24)

Embarking in today's world on a pilgrimage of justice and peace implies striving for sustainability and climate justice. It is a matter of life or death, or as expressed earlier, since the Limits to Growth report, is the only alternative to avoid the major collapse of humanity and the earth. Ecumenical organizations like the World Council of Churches and ACT Alliance have joined efforts to respond to these challenges. By doing so, they contribute to the diaconal work of the churches, while at the same time marshalling considerable influence toward governments and international policy processes and platforms, such as those under the direction of the United Nations.

DOI: 10.1111/erev.12106

(1) D.H. Meadows, et al., Limits to Growth (New York: Universe Books, 1972).

(2) The World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987.

(3) See e.g., Herman E. Daly and John B. Cobb, For the Common Good: Redirecting the Economy toward Community, the Environment, and a Sustainable Future (Boston: Beacon Press, 1989); Bob Goudzwaard, Beyond Poverty and Affluence (Geneva: World Council of Churches, 1994); Leonardo Boff, "O tempo da grande transformagao e da corrupcao geral" (The time of the big transformation and general corruption), Jornal do Brasil, 20 January 2014, http://www.jb.com.br/leonardo-boff/noticias/2014/01/20/o-tempo-da-grande-transformacao-e-da -corrupcao-geral/; Leonardo Boff and Marcos Arruda, Globalityatydo: Desafios socioeconomicos, eticos e educacionais (Sao Paulo: Vozes, 2001).

(4) See the WCC statement on Just finance and the economy of life: http://www.oikoumene.org/en/resources/ documents/central-committee/2009/report-on-public-issues/statement-on-just-finance-and-the-economy-of -life.

(5) WCC statement "Economy of life, Jusdce and Peace for All - A Call to Action," para. 16 (Geneva: WCC, 2012).

See https://www.oikoumene.org/en/resources/documents/wcc-programmes/public-witness-addressing -power-affirming-peace/poverty-wealth-and-ecology/neoliberal-paradigm/agape-call-for-acdon-2012.

(6) Robert W. Kates, Thomas M. Parris, and Anthony A. Leiserowitz, "What is Sustainable Development? Goals, Indicators, Values, and Practice," Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development 4713 (April 2005), 8-21.

(7) Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable Development, 2002.

(8) See IPCC Fifth Assessment report at http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5.

(9) WCC Statement to the COP 13 to the UNFCCC in Bali, Indonesia, 14 December 2007: https:// www.oikoumene.org/en/resources/documents/wcc-programmes/jusdce-diakonia-and-responsibility-for -creation/climate-change-water/statement-to-copl3-un-climate-conference-bali.

(10) See more at http://www.uncsd2012.org/history.html#sthash.hRR5n310.dpuf.

(11) Available at http://www.un.org/documents/ga/conf151/aconf15126-lannexl.htm.

(12) See the UNFCC website at: http://unfccc.int/focus/adaptation/items/6999.php.

(13) Support the World's Poorest to Adapt to Climate Change, Policy Brief, Climate Change Adaptation, ACT Alliance, at: http://www.actalliance.org/ resources/publications/ACT_adaptation_policy_brief_2011.pdf/view.

(14) See "Focus: Mitigation," UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, at: http://unfccc.int/focus/ mitdgation/items/7169.php#intro.

(15) See e.g., Julio de Santa Ana, ed., Sustainability and Globalisation (Geneva: WCC, 1998), which presents the contributions and final statement of one of the Visser't Hooft Memorial Consultations dedicated to the topic held in previous years.

(16) The Ecumenical Review dedicated an issue to this topic: Churches Caring for Creation and Climate Justice 62:2 (July 2010).

(17) Statement on the Tenth Anniversary of the Kyoto Protocol, Minutes of the Meeting of the Executive Committee of the World Council of Churches (Geneva: WCC, 2007).

(18) See e.g., Deut. 10:18-19, Is. l:16b-17.

(19) Leonardo Boff, Cry of the Earth, Cry of the Poor (New York: Orbis, 1997).

(20) Why are the Churches at the UN Conference on Climate Change in Cancun? (World Council of Churches and Lutheran World Federation, 2010), at: http://www.oikoumene.org/en/resources/documents/wcc-programmes/justice -diakonia-and-responsibility-for-creation/climate-change-water/why-are-the-churches-at-the-un-conference -on-climate-change-in-cancun. Accessed 22 May 2014.

(21) See e.g., Michael S. Northcott, A Moral Climate: The Ethics of Global Warming (New York: Orbis, 1997), and the work that has been done by the Rock Institute of the Penn State University', http://rockethics.psu.edu/climate

(22) See "Message of the WCC 10th Assembly," 8 November 2013, at: http://www.oikoumene.org/en/resources/ documents/assembly/2013-busan/adopted-documents-statements/message-of-the-wcc-10th-assembly

(23) See Guillermo Kerber, A Pilgrimage towards Water of Life, at: http://water.oikoumene.org/en/whatwedo/seven -weeks-for-water/2014/week-3

(24) See The Ecumenical Review, Peace on Earth, Peace with the Earth 63:1 (March 2011).

Isaiah Kipyegon Toroitich is a development and humanitarian advocate working as the Global Policy and Advocacy Coordinator of ACT Alliance. He formerly worked as the Climate Change Policy and Advocacy Officer for ACT Alliance and as a Climate Justice Advisor for Norwegian Church Aid, where he led advocacy work toward the UNFCCC and the other Rio Conventions. He holds a master's degree in Development Communications.

Guillermo Kerber, originally from Uruguay, holds academic degrees in Philosophy and Theology and a doctorate in Sciences of Religion. He presently coordinates the work on Economic and Ecological Justice at the World Council of Churches.