Technology development in construction: a continuum from distant past into the future.

Skibniewski, Miroslaw J. ; Zavadskas, Edmundas K.

1. Introduction

Technology is the making, modification, usage, and knowledge of tools, machines, techniques, crafts, systems, methods of organization, in order to solve a problem, improve a preexisting solution to a problem, achieve a goal or perform a specific function. It can also refer to the collection of such tools, machinery, modifications, arrangements and procedures. Technologies significantly affect human as well as animal species' ability to control and adapt to their natural environments (Wikipedia 2012). Technology plays an important role in the science Technology [right arrow] production [right arrow] economy chain (Fig. 1).

[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]

Technology, as a scientific discipline, is determined to be transmission between the production and the fundamental sciences. Technology of construction processes analyses the separate elements of construction production (Fig. 2). The main objectives of technological sciences in the realm of construction are as follows:

--Systems-oriented analysis of construction processes with aspiration to determine their main components and relationships;

--Development of standard construction processes to be emulated throughout the industry;

--Research-based compilation of data for use in technology standards, directories and databases.

[FIGURE 2 OMITTED]

A typical feature of most if not all construction technologies is their implementation of achievements originating from different scientific disciplines. The modelling of construction process is one prominent example of this fact (Fig. 3). The main components of the model are: pre-construction/ preparation processes (PP), construction site processes (CP) and management of the construction process (MP) (Fig. 4) (Fiedler et al. 1981).

[FIGURE 3 OMITTED]

[FIGURE 4 OMITTED]

Future development of construction technologies depends on the most pressing needs of sustainable built environment, economic and business fragmentation constraints characteristic for the construction industry, and the need to increase productivity and safety of construction workers. A systematic approach to the prediction of future trends has been provided by Zavadskas et al. (2007).

2. Creativity and Technology

What is creativity? According to a popular reference article, the term "refers to the invention or origination of any new thing (a product, solution, artwork, literary work, etc.) that has value. "New" may refer to the individual creator or the society or domain within which novelty occurs. "Valuable", similarly, may be defined in a variety of ways. The range of scholarly interest in creativity includes a multitude of definitions and approaches involving [...] psychology, cognitive science, education, philosophy (particularly philosophy of science), technology, theology, sociology, linguistics, business studies and economics, taking in the relationship between creativity and general intelligence, mental and neurological processes associated with creativity, the relationships between personality type and creative ability and between creativity and mental health, the potential for fostering creativity through education and training, especially as augmented by technology, and the application of creative resources [...]." (Wikipedia 2012).

There are over 200 scientific descriptions of the process of human creativity due to the numerous aspects, domains and manifestations of this attribute. The role of creative minds in the construction industry will be of vital importance in the future, as this industry is most often the largest contributor to the national economies of almost all developed nations and beyond (Langford, Dimitrijevic 2002).

In construction, creativity has been associated in history in a large part with the intellectual and organizational capacities of the 'master builder' (Skibniewski 2012). Creativity remains unrealized unless it leads to the act of innovation. As construction knowledge, technology and experience progressed through the ages in the realization of major construction projects, various projectrelated specialties emerged: architects, building technicians and engineers, project sponsors and financiers, material and equipment suppliers, labor organizers, etc. This has often led to creative tensions among numerous project participants which either stimulated or hampered construction creativity and innovation.

As of 23 November 2012, more than 1200 scholarly papers related to the topic of "Technology & Creativity" can be found in the Thomson Reuters Web of Science database (Fig. 5). However, the number of related publications dealing with "civil engineering" and "construction and building technology" amounts to only several dozen. A sample of interesting examples of such papers is presented in Table 1.

3. Historical Retrospective

Construction is undoubtedly a product of human creativity which experienced its 'peaks and valleys' over the centuries. Building technologies and trades developed at first, most likely in ancient Mesopotamia (in the Tigris-Euphrates river system), dating back to year 3600 BC. According to Sumerian mythology, the Mesopotamians regarded the craft of building as a divine gift taught to men by the gods. Ziggurats, pyramid-like structures of that civilization, remain to this day in today's Iraq. Similarly, ancient Chinese construction methods, utilizing both stone and timber, are as old as the Chinese civilization, dating back approximately to year 4000 BC. The Chinese were using elaborate wall-building techniques since approximately year 800 BC, culminating in the Great Wall of China built over an extraordinarily long period of approximately 2000 years. Ancient Egyptian pyramids of Giza, whose construction lasted only approximately 20 years and concluded in approximately year 2560 BC, were initially 147 meters in height and remained the tallest man-made structures for over 3800 years. The exact means and methods of their construction, ranging from ancient forms of in situ processes to those partially resembling offsite prefabrication, are subject to protracted speculations to date among archeologists and historians of technology. Ancient Maya construction of Central America, featuring ceremonial platforms, palaces, pyramids, temples, observatories and ball-courts had intricate carved stones and stair-step design, spanning a vast period of several thousands of years. Elaborate building methods were developed to include massive substructures made of stucco and cut stone interior, providing a solid foundation for the ensuing superstructures. External aesthetics took precedence over utility of many of these structures, as their purpose was typically both religious and lay. Ancient Inca architecture in pre-Columbian South America featured in Cuzco and at the royal estate of Machu Picchu dates back to the 2nd century BC and has not been emulated for several centuries following the Spanish conquest and subsequent destruction of this civilization.

Ancient Greece and ancient Roman Empire borrowed a number of building techniques from the preceding civilizations while also developing unique techniques and architectural styles of their own, characterized by numerous temples, palaces and other public and private buildings, as well as world-renown structures such as Parthenon in Athens or Colosseo stadium in Rome. Construction techniques of parabolic stone arches subjected to compression forces only, with no bending moments, and the design and construction of elevated municipal and rural aqueducts resulted in great architectural accomplishments existing in southern and Western Europe to the present day. The following European era of the Middle Ages, which lasted longer than all of the subsequent cultural periods combined, resulted in splendid Romanesque and Gothic architecture demanding new projects, undertaken both with the use of proven construction techniques from the bygone eras and new materials and techniques, including the production and implementation of building glass and an apparent use of organic mortars for stone masonry.

4. Linking the Present to the Past

The invention of Portland cement and the production of concrete revolutionized the use of construction materials and techniques and the ensuing construction methods dominate to this day. There is some historical evidence that this technology dates back to the ancient Romans and was used in the Roman Empire, e.g. for construction of the Roman Pantheon (Mukerji 2005). However, with the demise of that empire, the use of concrete was abandoned and almost forgotten, until its re-invention and slow reemergence from the 18th century AD onwards. Currently the tallest building in the world, Burj Khalifa in Dubai (828 meters tall) is built with the use of this material.

Ingenious creativity of construction craftsmen was exhibited throughout all of the architectural styles constituting the architectural and building engineering history of the last three centuries. Examples of ingenuity are too numerous to enumerate in a short presentation; it should suffice to mention the historically, technically, and artistically diverse select, short list of geniuses of Apollodorus of Damascus (2nd century AD), Abbot Suger (12th century), Villard de Honnecourt (13th century), Filippo Calendario (14th century), Leonardo da Vinci (15-16111 centuries), Raphael Santi (16th century), Gianlorenzo Bernini (17th century), Nicolai Eigtved (aka Niels Madsen) and Domenico Merlini (18th century), Bela Lajta and Adolf Lang (19th-20th centuries), Frank Lloyd Wright (early 20th century), Renzo Piano (20th-21st centuries), Zygmunt Skibniewski (20th century), Frank Gehry (20th-21 centuries), and many others.

More than 20,541 scholarly papers published to date deal with the development of technology. The number of such publications is ever increasing (Figs 6 and 7). However, the number publications devoted to the subject of "civil engineering" or "construction and building technology" is only slightly more than 250, or about one per cent of the total. Several new examples of such publications are presented in Table 2.

More than 4,092 scholarly publications are devoted to future technological developments (Web of Knowledge--Web of Science, 12/11/2012) (Fig. 8). In the same realm, the number of publications dealing with development of construction technologies is only 130 (Fig. 9). Some of the latest such publications are presented in Table 3.

A new impetus to creativity in construction, and particularly to large earthwork projects and to tall buildings, was the progress of construction mechanization spurred by the invention of steam engine. Much of such equipment has been preserved to this day, thanks to the efforts of the Historical Construction Equipment Association (Historical Construction Equipment Association 2012) based in Ohio, USA. A revolution in construction equipment was started with the invention of hydraulic pistons for the transmission of large forces. This led to a series of highly successful designs of the new types of earthmoving equipment, surface finishing tools, and all terrain telescopic boom cranes (Skibniewski 1988a). What followed years later are improved equipment controls, intelligent sensors, laser-based telemetry and global positioning systems that led to marked improvement in the quality and productivity to many types of earthwork and allied construction tasks (Skibniewski 1993). Subsequently, construction robotics were designed and prototyped, initially in the early 1970's in the former Soviet Union on commission from the former Soviet armed forces (Springer Handbook of Mechanical Engineering 2009) (e.g. Dr. G. Frenkel at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering, formerly Moscow Civil Engineering Institute) and at VNIISTROYDORMASH), then in the late 1970's and early 1980's in Japan (Prof. Y. Hasegawa at Waseda University's Systems Science Institute, followed by several construction firms such as Obayashi, Shimizu, Kajima, Takenaka, Fujita, and others) and in the United States (Prof. W. Whittaker at Carnegie Mellon University's Field Robotics Center) (Haas et al. 1995). The idea was not entirely new, as already in 1910 a French artist Villemard produced a postcard illustration depicting his vision of a construction site in the year 2000, see Fig. 10 (BLDG BLOG 2011). International Association for Automation and Robotics in Construction (IAARC) (International Association for Automation and Robotics in Construction 2012) was created in 1993, continuing to organize annual symposia on this subject held around the world since 1984. (2012 and 2013 International Symposia on Automation and Robotics in Construction 2012). In its early years of existence, IAARC members unknowingly shared Villemard's early vision that robotics will become commonplace on construction project sites in the developed economies by the year 2000, which has not materialized not because of the lack of technical capabilities to implement them, but mainly due to the protracted economic crisis in Japan which led the development of robotic prototypes and automated systems for construction sites between in the 1980's and 1990's, and the persisting fragmentation of the industry in the United States and western Europe in their methods of the delivery of projects (Skibniewski 1988b).

[FIGURE 10 OMITTED]

Tall building construction presented yet another set of challenges to construction creativity, particularly related to vertical transport (National Institute of Building Science 2012) elevator technologies available today widely employ artificial intelligence and fuzzy-set-based controls to automate and optimize vertical transport of materials and people. This, combined with significant improvements in lifting crane equipment and operations, has led to increased efficiency, safety and improved productivity on the construction site, although accidents in this type of essential construction work as still relatively common (Crane Accidents 2012) There is a need redesign of many construction tasks based on sound ergonomic principles and aimed at further mechanization and automation of tasks that are simple, repetitive and inherently dangerous (Russell, Skibniewski 1990).

Recent advances in the implementation rapid prototyping, construction process simulation and accelerated implementation of Building Information Modeling (BIM) technologies are on their way to transforming building construction and allied project-based professions serving the construction industry (Building SMART International Ltd 2012; National Institute of Building Sciences 2012; Zavadskas 1991; Kanapeckiene et al. 2011; Zavadskas et al. 1995, 1994; Zavadskas, Kaklauskas 2007; Popov et al. 2010; Skibniewski, Jang 2009).

5. Innovation Environment in Construction Technology and Possible Way Forward

Innovation in construction project management benefitted much from the early advances in computational science and information technologies dating back to the late 19th century, particularly from work flow and networking techniques leading to improved project scheduling (Marsh 1975; Hajdu 1997). Program management to reshape the future built environment (Kaklauskas, Zavadskas 2009), particularly that of 21st cities, will depend on our ability to implement the latest advances of information and automation technologies in an integrated manner (Skibniewski et al. 1997; Sawaf, Skibniewski 2011; Kaklauskas et al. 2010, 2011, 2012; Zavadskas 2010).

Decision making will play a crucial role in construction management. Multi-Criteria Decision Making (MCDM) (Koksolan et al. 2011) is a sub-discipline of operations research that explicitly considers multiple criteria in decision-making environments, which can help the stakeholders: (a) assess the current situation, (b) find satisfactory solutions, and (c) take appropriate responses taking into account a set of objectives and criteria, that can be conflicting, multidimensional, incommensurable and incomparable. MCDM involves diverse methods leading to the prototyping and implementation of decision aid tools (Skibniewski, Chao 1992; Zavadskas et al. 1994, 2011; Yu, Skibniewski 1999; Zavadskas, Turskis 2011; Jiang et al. 2012; Bitarafan et al. 2012; NietoMorote, Ruz-Vila 2012).

It is widely acknowledged that the main barrier to an increased pace of innovation in construction is the fragmentation of this industry initiated in mid 1950's and exacerbated throughout the remainder of the 20th century, creating adversarial and litigious project execution environments. Intense competition in most developed markets and the consequential low profit margins for construction contractors, designers and suppliers led to the commoditization of this industry. Additional severe challenges to the construction industries exist in the newly developing markets and in transition economies (Kocsis et al. 2011). Much of the process and quality improvement in construction utilizes proven management concepts from industries outside of construction (Tchidi et al. 2012). However, new project delivery systems such as Build-Operate-Transfer afforded an opportunity for new synergies among project owners, financiers, designers, constructors, suppliers and facility operators (Salman et al. 2007).

Supply chains in construction are being transformed thanks to implementation of successful ideas from retail trade industries (Li et al. 2008) and e-commerce platforms affording access to previously closed markets and increasing competitiveness among suppliers (Castro-Lacouture et al. 2007). Development of Internet-based collaboration tools, besides their overwhelmingly positive effect on project efficiency and productivity, created also a highly distributed construction project management environment (Nitithamyong, Skibniewski 2004; Urbanaviciene et al. 2009; Costa, Tavares 2012; Kaklauskas, Zavadskas 2002, 2010, 2012). Intelligent materials, distributed sensor systems and nanotechnology create new opportunities beyond the conventional solutions possible with traditional construction materials and systems (Mann 2006).

Schug and Watson of FMI argue for the need of construction innovation at three levels: tactical, operational and strategic (Schug, Watson 2012). They state that routine perspectives brought into construction from outside industries generate stimulation that drives innovation. Such innovation must be rewarded by recognition from industry peers (Construction Week Online 2012). All project participants should be made aware of their surroundings, enabling them to sense change and communicate the information to leaders of their organizations about technical and other related changes as seen from their perspective. Shared visions are essential to motivate and inspire construction organizations, propelling them to higher levels of creativity and innovation. Development of new skills, systems and strategic awareness creates a gradual change in attitude and behavior, resulting in improved organizational culture facilitating employee creativity. Changing the company culture to facilitate greater creativity takes time for most contractors due to organizational inertia and risk aversion created by the competitive and litigious work environment.

A number of organizations worldwide, such as Construction Industry Institute, (Construction Industry Institute 2012) FIATECH, (Fiatech 2012) Construction Innovation Forum, (The Construction Innovation Forum 2012) Building Smart Alliance, (The building SMART alliance 2012) and others strive to foster the culture of creativity and innovation in the construction industry (Skibniewski, Chao 1992; Chao, Skibniewski 1995). Creativity unleashed by the use of innovative technologies can transform the entrenched relationships among project participants throughout the entire supply chain of this industry. This requires technology transfer from other branches of industry into construction and vice versa, (Skibniewski, Nof 1989; Pan et al. 2011; Kaklauskas, Zavadskas 2004) with a thorough technology feasibility evaluation prior to its implementation on construction sites (Gaultney et al. 1989; Jiang et al. 2012). Much of the current efforts focus on construction innovation aims at the challenges related to environmental sustainability and energy management in the built environment, (Kaklauskas et al. 2012; Zavadskas et al. 2008; Turskis et al. 2012) safety improvement, (Cheng, Teizer 2011) and productivity enhancement (Chao, Skibniewski 1994; Liao et al. 2012; Zavadskas, Vaidogas 2009). This trend, in addition to creativity manifestations in new architectural forms, is likely to continue well into the future, particularly over growing environmental protection concerns and sustainability of the current economic systems in the remainder of the 21st century.

doi:10.3846/13923730.2012.756060

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Miroslaw J. Skibniewski (1), Edmundas K. Zavadskas (2)

(1) Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742-3021, USA

(2) Faculty of Civil Engineering, Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, Sauletekio al. 11, 10223 Vilnius, Lithuania

E-mails: (1) mirek@umd.edu; (2) edmundas.zavadskas@vgtu.lt (corresponding author)

Received 30 Nov. 2012; accepted 03 Dec. 2012

Mirostaw J. SKIBNIEWSKI. Professor of Construction Engineering and Project Management at the University of Maryland (College Park), USA. A past winner of the U.S. National Science Foundation Presidential Young Investigator Award, the Walter L. Huber Research Prize from the American Society of Civil Engineers and a foreign member of the Russian Academy of Engineering. A holder of an honorary doctorate from Vilnius Gediminas Technical University in Lithuania. An author or co-author of over 200 technical publications. Research interests include automation and information technology issues related to construction project engineering and management.

Edmundas K. ZAVADSKAS. Professor and Head of the Department of Construction Technology and Management at Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, Vilnius, Lithuania, and the Founding Rector/President of the same institution. Member of the Lithuanian and several foreign Academies of Sciences. Holder of honorary doctorates from Poznan, Saint Petersburg, and Kiev technical universities. An author or co-author of over 400 scholarly papers and a number of monographs on construction technologies and management. Research interests include construction technology and management, decision-making theory, automation in design and decision support systems.

Table 1. Sample publications on creativity and
technology in civil engineering and construction

Reference                   Main topic

Noor 2011                   Intelligent adaptive Cyber-
                            Physical Ecosystem

Ibrahim et al. 2010         Comparison CAD and manual sketching
                            tools for teaching architectural design

Lainez et al. 2009          The Key-role of Eladio Dieste for
                            Brickwork to Architectural design

Kicinger et al. 2005        Evolutionary computation and
                            structural design

Srdic, Selih 2011           Integrated quality and
                            sustainability assessment

Peldschus, Zavadskas 2012   Equilibrium approaches for
                            construction processes

Barrow 2006                 Ideation and CADCAM

Holland 2006                Virtual school of architecture
                            and design

Fan 2009                    Exploration and Practice in Design

Negoescu, Axinte 2007       Engineering for strategic advantages

Seghedin 2007               Combinatorics in technical creation

Allen, Self 2008            Analysis of the integration
                            of knowledge

Mackechnie, Buchanan 2012   Creative Laboratory Model for Large
                            Undergraduate Engineering Classes

Zheng et al. 2011           Impact of Nanotechnology on Future
                            Civil Engineering Practice

Bruhwiler 2011              New Swiss Codes for engineering

Mashood et al. 2007         KB-GA-Based Hybrid System
                            for Layout Planning

Ediz, Cagdas 2007           Computational Architectural
                            Design Model

Sarrade et al. 2007         The GENHEPI Concept

Kaklauskas et al. 2011      Integrated model and system
                            for passive houses

Zavadskas et al. 2011       Intelligent library and tutoring
                            system at all stages of a building
                            life cycle

Banaitiene et al. 2008      Evaluating the life cycle of
                            a building

Table 2. Publications in Web of Science by topic:
technology perspective

Reference              Topic addressed

Yang et al. 2012       Web-based evaluation system
                       housing

Arslan 2012            Web-Based Contractor Evaluation
                       System for Mass-Housing Projects

Boukhatem et al.       Application of new information
2011                   technology on concrete

Podvezko et al. 2010   Complex evaluation of contracts for
                       construction

Radziszewska-Zielina   Selecting the best partner construc-
2010                   tion enterprise in terms of partnering
                       relations

Zhang, Hu 2011         BIM- and 4D-based integrated solu-
                       tion of analysis and management for
                       conflicts and structural safety prob-
                       lems during construction

Dejus 2011             Safety of technological projects

Lee et al. 2012        A BIM- and sensor-based tower
                       crane navigation system

Chow et al. 2012       Catastrophe model of withdrawal in
                       construction project dispute negotia-
                       tion

Razavi, Haas 2012      A Reliability-Based Hybrid Data
                       Fusion Method for Adaptive Loca-
                       tion Estimation in Construction

Hartmann 2011          Project Teams

AbouRizk et al. 2011   Construction Engineering Operations

Table 3. Examples of latest publications, topic:
technology possible way

Reference            Considered problem

Clements-Crowne      Sustainable intelligent buildings
2011

Ghaffarian Hoseini   Ecologically sustainable design
2012

Bhatla et al. 2012   Evaluation of accuracy of as-built
                     3D modeling from photos taken by
                     handheld digital cameras

Promis et al. 2012   Effect of post-tensioning on the
                     bending behavior

Gong et al. 2012     GPS/GIS method for travel mode
                     detection in New York City

Zalama et al. 2011   An Effective Texture Mapping
                     Approach for 3D Models Obtained

Chu et al. 2011      Development of Microbial Geotech-
                     nology

Marti et al. 2010    A multi-agent system for managing
                     adverse weather situations

Bayart et al. 2010   A Framework for Assessing
                     Off-Stream Freshwater

Yang, Lin 2011       Coastal Reservoir by Soft-Dam and
                     its Possible Applications

Fig. 5. Number of publications on the topic
technology and creativity

Publications

1989     1
1990     5
1991     5
1992     7
1993    12
1994    13
1995    15
1996    22
1997    22
1998    28
1999    27
2000    49
2001    31
2002    45
2003    56
2004    63
2005    51
2006    56
2007   111
2008   108
2009   143
2010   135
2011   136
2012    60

Note: Table made from bar graph.

Fig. 6. Publications in Web of Science on topic:
technology perspective

Publications

1987          1
1988          3
1989          17
1990          79
1991          171
1992          226
1993          223
1994          273
1995          338
1996          399
1997          483
1998          530
1999          586
2000          668
2001          638
2002          750
2003          814
2004          1001
2005          1092
2006          1194
2007          1618
2008          1823
2009          2021
2010          1992
2011          213
2012          1466

Note: Table made from bar graph.

Fig. 7. Publications by topics: technology perspective (science
categories-engineering civil or construction building technology)

Publications

1990         8
1991         3
1992         6
1993         3
1994         1
1996         6
1997         9
1998         8
1999         6
2000         13
2001         24
2002         9
2003         16
2004         8
2005         9
2006         13
2007         22
2008         21
2009         18
2010         18
2011         23
2012         9

Note: Table made from bar graph.

Fig. 8. Publications by topic: technology possible way.

Publications

1989         1
1990         5
1991         39
1992         40
1993         52
1994         67
1995         68
1996         163
1997         152
1998         148
1999         150
2000         163
2001          151
2002          185
2003          208
2004          227
2005          240
2006          249
2007          304
2008          339
2009          356
2010          312
2011          331
2012          215

Note: Table made from bar graph.

Fig. 9. Number if publications by topic: technology possible way
(science categories: construction technology or civil engineering)

Publications

1991         1
1992         0
1993         2
1994         4
1995         1
1996         4
1997         7
1998         5
1999         4
2000         15
2001         6
2002         5
2003         9
2004         6
2005         3
2006         13
2007         10
2008         9
2009         8
2010         9
2011         7
2012         2

Note: Table made from bar graph.