Career interest in international business: a comparative study of Peruvian, Chilean and US students.

Spillan, John E. ; Chaubey, Manmohan D. ; Maysami, Ramin 等

INTRODUCTION

The growth and expansion of international markets has created many new opportunities for students to pursue work careers all over the world. Many companies which have expanded globally are in need of finding talented, interested and capable workers to accept job assignments in their foreign offices. Identifying who the potential candidates for foreign job assignments is an important human resource task. For a long time, American and European companies have been recruiting student graduates responsive to working in international settings (Foster & Johnsen, 1996; Laabs, 1991; Scullion, 1992; Stroh & Caligiuri, 1998; Solomon, 1994; Weeks, 1992) for some time. Newly trained professionals are an important pool of management talent available to meet the needs of global and multinational firms. These students are the future of business because they not only provide the intellectual capital for the present work plans but they also offer human resources that will determine international business of the future (Laabs, 1991; Scullion, 1992; Solomon, 1994; Weeks, 1992).

The direction that new recruits to international work settings choose for adapting to their new work environments has been the topic of management research for over two decades (e.g., Van Mannen and Schein, 1979; Nicholson, 1984; Fisher, 1986; Chao,et al., 1994). This research is important in international business mainly because of the difficulty connected with newcomers adjustment to new work roles, organizational cultures, and national cultures (Black et al., 1991). The complexities are well documented in the international literature especially with the reports of high expatriate premature return rates (e.g., Tung, 1981; Shay and Tracey, 1997) and the great costs related to premature staff returns to home offices (e.g., Caudron, 1991; Kraimer et al., 2001).

To add to the insights of how potential candidates may think about an international assignment for their professional work, we reviewed prior literature regarding student receptivity to accepting an international work assignment. We begin by presenting an overview of international effectiveness literatures. We then present the theoretical rationale for our model. Next, we use opinions of 229 students who completed a survey regarding their knowledge of a particular part of the world and their willingness to accept an assignment in that part of the globe. Further, we analyzed this data by comparing relationships between those who have visited a country and those who have not, along with those who speak a foreign language and those who do not. Finally, we present our findings and discuss their implications.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Receptivity to international employment is an important concept. It has been studied by various scholars in cross-sectional environments (Aryee,Chay, & Chew, 1996;Bois & Rothstein, 2002; Brett& Stroh, 1995, Clegg & Gray, 2002). There is evidence that multiple streams of research regarding success in international assignments have been conducted. A number of recruiting strategies have been employed to secure professionals for a global work force (Fedlman, 2001; Weeks, 1992). Many firms assess skills of prospective expatriates in an effort to select individuals most likely to succeed in the assignment (Graf, 2004; Van Vianen, DeParter, Kistof-Brown & Johnson, 2004). Successful expatriate assignments have been linked to a number of variables, including one's predisposition for such an assignment (Tharenou, 2003), training and preparation prior to the assignment (Shay & Baack, 2004), intuition and creativity (Harvey & Novicevic, 2002) and cultural differences (Jassawalla, Truglia, & Garvey, 2004, Sims & Shrader, 2004).

Solomon (1994) and Laabs (1991) showed how U.S. global companies seek new business graduates from aboard for their graduates recruitment programs. The labor needs of global and multinational firms for graduates from abroad are consistent with young graduates self-initiating work opportunities (Hugo, Rudd, & Harris, 2001).

Why is the study of students relevant? First, understanding the receptivity to working abroad of young professionals can assist companies in their recruitment and search for new talent (Laabs, 1991;Scullion, 1992; Solomon, 1994; Weeks, 1992). Second, scholars advocate understanding students receptivity to international careers because they are the next generation of managers (Adler, 1986, Hill & Tillery, 1992). Third, by studying students who are contemplating entering the work force or who are considering different employment once they finish their education, strategies can be developed as to how to better recruit and attract them to international occupations.

RESEARCH HYPOTHESES

The globalization of the world has opened up unlimited opportunities for students to work in many locations around the world yet there is not a major rush to obtain these lucrative jobs. As such, this study attempts to analyze and understand the factors that contribute to a college student's interest and desire to seek a professional position abroad. The research question posed in this paper is: What factors affect or motivate a students desire to seek professional employment abroad? To develop this question and more thoroughly understand the substance of the factors associated with a students interest in a foreign country career we developed five (5) major hypotheses.

Generally, students who are thinking about professional opportunities have various sources of information that allows them to sort out and develop a point of view for making their decision(s). Many times the age of a student will determine whether they can immediately pursue a adventure in a foreign country. For a students who is "unattached," traveling to another country is a lark. Younger students have not settled down yet and for some career goals are not solidly developed. As such, foreign travel provides an exciting growth experience for them and it is very appealing. Older students generally have a set goal and in many cases are looking for a steady, professional career that will provide a comfortable living for them and their families (Tharenou 2003). Because of this state of affairs we assert that :

H1 There is a significant difference between older and younger students in their desire to work abroad.

Historically, it has been a general belief that men are the primary career individual occupying professional positions in foreign companies. The global economy, however, has offered varied opportunities for many people to advance their careers from many dimensions. Women especially have been able to pursue careers that have been very advantageous and helpful in there development. Studies by Taylor et al, (1996) indicate that the number of women moving into foreign career jobs has increased.

H2 There exists a significant difference between men and women in their desire to work abroad.

Those students who have lived abroad appear to have more interest in pursuing careers abroad. Familiarity with the culture and the geography offers information and evidence that students can tangibly sort out and make solid decisions based on this actual assimilation into the culture (Selmer & Lam, 2004). Thus we posit that:

H3: There is be a significant difference in the interest to work abroad between students who have lived abroad for 60 days and those who have not.

Safety has always been a major factor for people from all cultures traveling in unknown areas of the world. Over the last 5 years, the intensity of ethnocentrism among countries has grown broader and more intense. Such ideas and emotional feelings about the nationality of a person, especially students can have a major effect on their desire to not only travel but work abroad. Therefore we believe that:

H4: There is a major concern about safety among American students seeking professional careers aboard

Clearly, language fluency has been demonstrated repeatedly that it contributes significantly to the ability and motivation of a person to work abroad. Students proficient in a foreign language will have an increased desire and an ability to demonstrate success in their work assignments and travel (Nicholson & Imaizumi, 1993, Victor, 1992). With this idea in mind we propose that:

H5: There is be a significant difference between students who possess language ability than those who do not.

DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

Data for this paper was collected from students through a self-administered survey. Work values were measured via Manhardt's (1972) three-dimensional scale. In general, Manhardt's work has been supported in subsequent tests, although the dimensions-comfort and security, competence and growth, and stauts and independence have changed slightly in several studies (Brenner & Tomkiewicz, 1982; Meyer, Irving, & Allen, 1998). Students from three major universities in Pennsylvania, West Virginia and Florida were surveyed regarding there knowledge, interest and desire to work abroad. A total of 228 students are included in the data set for this study.

Table 1 above shows the mean students' response on their knowledge of and their job interest in different regions of the world and the same in a few selected countries. The table segregates the results by the countries where the data was collected. It makes it possible to compare the students' responses to region and country knowledge and desire in job assignments among the three groups of students.

REGION AND COUNTRY KNOWLEDGE

In general, as Table 1 shows, the students did not report a high level of knowledge for any region. The only exceptions to this are the Peruvian students reported knowledge of South America and the Chilean students' knowledge of Eastern Europe had mean responses exceeding 3.50. The US students' mean response on knowledge of African regions, though low (below 2.0), exceeded the mean responses for the Peruvian and Chilean students. The mean response to level of knowledge generally is higher for individual countries. The Peruvian students reported high mean scores (above 3.0) for UK, Canada, France, and Mexico. The Chilean students reported higher mean responses (above 3.0) for Germany, France and Mexico. In general, the mean scores on country knowledge are higher than that for the regions. This is because the regions presented to the student, did not include the Western Europe or the North America. Countries in these two regions received the higher level of knowledge scores from the students. Peruvian students provided a very high mean response values for North America region and the highest mean response for the USA. This is not surprising due to the salience of the USA in the Americas. The questionnaire used in Chile inadvertently excludes the North America and the USA, so we do not have the Peruvian students' knowledge scores for these two items.

The students from Peru and Chile, compared to the US students indicated a higher level of knowledge for all but two countries included in the survey. The exceptions were India and Korea where the Peruvian students indicated a lower level (mean response below 2.0) of knowledge. Except for these two examples, and the US students' response to level of knowledge about South Africa, mean responses for all other countries were above 2.0 for all the three groups of students. The Peruvian students' mean responses for the UK, Canada, France and Mexico and the Chilean students' mean responses for Germany, France and Mexico were especially high (above 3.0). The US students indicated such high level of knowledge only for Canada. The Peruvian students, not surprisingly, indicated an above 4.0 level of knowledge for USA. As indicated above, we do not have date on USA for the Chilean students and including USA for the US questionnaire would not have made sense.

DESIRE FOR FOREIGN JOB ASSIGNMENT

Students' in Peru indicated higher mean response to job interest in Scandinavia, Eastern Europe, South and Central America. The mean response is greater than 2.0 for these regions. The response of the students from Chile is similar in this respect. The US students' responses have a similar profile, but they indicated a lower job interest for Central America than the students from Peru and Chile. All the three student groups rated their job interest in North Africa, South-Central Africa and East and West Africa as low (less than 2.0 mean response).

The students from Peru indicated higher job interest for South America (mean response 3.43). Students from Chile indicated high level of job interest (above 3.0) for Eastern Europe and Central America. The response on job interest in the Scandinavia, the three groups have the mean response below 2.5. For the Eastern Europe, South America and Central America regions, the students from Peru and Chile indicated a higher degree of job interest than their US counterparts. In general, it can be concluded that the students from Chile and Peru reported higher job interest about certain regions than their US counterparts.

In terms of students' interest in job assignment in different selected countries, there were some clear differences among the responses from students from the three countries. The students from Peru and Chile, compared to the US students, consistently showed higher interest in job assignments in all the listed countries. The US students had the highest job interest for Australia (mean response 3.07). Students from Peru and Chile also indicated high job interest in Australia and, as mentioned before, their mean responses were higher than that for the US students. Similar pattern can be seen in responses for UK, Canada, Germany, France, Japan and Mexico.

The Peruvian students indicated highest job interest for Canada, UK, France, and Australia with mean responses well above 3.0. The highest mean response of 3.95 was for USA. It can safely be said that the USA and the Western Europe will be destination of choice for the Peruvian students. These students also indicated strong preference for Germany, Japan, Mexico, China, Russia, and South Africa. Their mean response on job interest item was above 2.0 for these countries. India and Korea held only a weak attraction for the Peruvian students.

The Chilean students also reported very strong job interests (mean response greater than 3.0) in Australia, Mexico, UK and in other Western European countries, Surprisingly, these students showed strong interest in accepting job assignments in all listed countries except South Africa. The data indicates that the Chilean students are more open to job assignments abroad than the students are from Peru or the USA. The US students in comparison indicated the least interest in foreign job assignments.

As far as the knowledge of regions or country is concerned, the students reported a higher levels of knowledge about the countries than of the corresponding regions. The name of the country has the specificity whereas the regions lack it. Globalization and international trade brings people in contact with people and products from other countries. That helps develop familiarity with the countries. The regions lack that anchor points in the students' knowledge map. However, it must be noted, the in spite of the vastness and the potential of the African continent, the students do not seem to know much about it.

The students' desire for job assignments abroad is biased towards the North American and the Western European countries. These countries have powerful economies and global business enterprises. The students are familiar with these countries and their cultures and would appear to be comfortable working there. The globalization, while it affects all economies, has highlighted the life and culture of these countries. Because of such factors, the students have shown a higher level of willingness to accept employment there. It should also be noted, that the US students perceive the USA to offer good job opportunities and a high standard of living and, therefore, the US students do not show a very high interest to accept job assignments abroad.

CORRELATION ANALYSIS

Student's knowledge of a region or a country is likely to affect their desire for job assignment there. Table 2 below presents the correlation coefficients in students' response about knowledge and job interest of a region or a country for the three student groups. All the correlation coefficients are positive and statistically significant. It indicated that the knowledge of a region (RK) or a nation/country (NK) makes a student more interested in accepting job assignment. Conversely, lack of regional or country knowledge will make a student less interested in working there. However, for students in both Peru and Chile the corresponding correlations are positive and statistically significant. For the Chilean students the correlation between National Interest (NI) and National knowledge (NK) is particularly high (0.615). The US respondents showed a high correlation among regional knowledge (RK) and regional interest (RI) with national knowledge (NK) and national interest (NI) , a pattern similar to that of the other two countries.

The high and positive correlations indicate either that knowledge of a country creates a kind of "familiarity" that makes the student more interested in accepting a job assignment there, or that the students seek out information about the countries where they are interested in accepting a job assignment. However, the patterns among these correlations appear to indicate that the knowledge and interest have a complex relationship.

THE EFFECT OF AGE

To see if the age of the students has any effect upon their knowledge of a country or upon their desire for accepting a job assignment there, students up to 24 years of age were coded as (YOUNGER) and those above 25 years of age were coded as OLDER. The mean responses to the Country Knowledge and Desire to Work Abroad were then calculated for the two age groups. Table 3 below presents the difference between the mean response on their knowledge of a country and also their interest for job assignments in these countries. The ANOVA tests were carried out to see if there were any statistically significant differences.

As Table 3 shows, the differences in mean responses, with the exception of Chilean students' desire for working in India, are statistically not significant. The older students in Chile showed more interest than their younger counterparts, in working in India. We can conclude that age is not a major factor in determining the knowledge about or the desire for accepting a job assignment in a country. The results seem to hold true for the US, Peru and Chile.

THE EFFECT OF GENDER

To test if the gender of the respondents has any effect on responses, the data was split between the Male and FEMALE respondents and the mean scores for the responses were calculated for the two groups. The difference in mean responses for male and female groups is given in Table 4 below. ANOVA analysis was conducted to test if the differences in mean response were statistically significant.

Regarding the knowledge of country, the male respondents reported more knowledge about Australia, Japan and Korea. The male respondents in Chile reported more knowledge than the females about UK, but the female respondents reported more knowledge about Canada than the male respondents.

In the USA, gender difference in the desire for job abroad was significant only for Japan, where male respondents showed significantly higher desire than the female respondents. In Chile, significant difference was found only South Africa. For the Peruvian students, significant differences were found for Mexico and Korea. In all these cases male students indicated a higher level of desire to work in these countries than the female students. In case of Peru, there was no statistically significant difference in the male/female response on knowledge of country.

THE EFFECT OF LANGUAGE ABILITY

To test if the language ability as reflected multilingualism of the respondents has any effect on responses, the data was split between the monolingual and bi/multi-lingual respondents and the mean scores for the responses were calculated for the two groups. The difference in mean responses for two groups is given in Table 5 below. ANOVA analysis was conducted to test if the differences in mean response were statistically significant.

Most students in the USA are monolingual. The result of the analysis shows that those with skills in another language reported a higher degree of knowledge of other countries than those with proficiency only in English. For the US respondents all the mean differences in knowledge were positive. However, only the differences for Germany, France, Mexico, and Korea were statistically significant. Similarly, the multilingual US students also reported a higher level of desire for foreign job assignments.

In comparison to the US students, those from Peru and Chile reported very little difference by their language ability both in the level of knowledge and the desire to work abroad. Language ability does not seem to play an important role in Peru and Chile in this respect. On the knowledge of the country the exceptions are Russia for Chile where the knowledge of the language led to a higher mean response. Similarly, on the desire to work variable, the respondents with language skills showed higher mean response in Chile for Korea.

Learning a foreign language also involves a certain degree of familiarization with the culture, literature, history, and the traditions of the other country. It can be assumed that multilingualism may make an individual not only more knowledgeable about other world regions and countries where the other language is spoken, it may also give confidence to the individual that if a foreign job assignment warrants leaning a new language, the individual will be able to do so successfully. Business organizations may also consider an individual's foreign language skills in the selection process for foreign job assignments. The individual perceptions of other cultures and the desirability of language and cultural skills in successful expatriates, in turn, may make the individual more interested in and desirous of seeking a foreign assignment.

DISCUSSION

The global economy requires that the business organizations have access to managerial workforce that is capable and willing to work in foreign countries. The results clearly indicate that the desire to work abroad is highly correlated to an individual's knowledge about a country. The country knowledge appears to make the student feel familiar with the region and thus more willing to accept foreign assignment there. However, students' interest in jobs abroad is higher among those in Peru and Chile than those in the US. The Latin America is characterized by similarity in culture and language. Students in Peru and Chile could be more willing to work in the region, in countries like Brazil or Argentina. This study did not include South American countries in its list, and therefore, we do not have specific information about students interest in jobs in South America. However, the Peruvian and Chilean students consistently reported higher knowledge and job interests in foreign regions and countries.

The study assumed that the younger students will be more willing to accept jobs abroad, since they do not have to consider family relocation issues. However, this study did not find much support for any age based difference. This was true for students in all the three countries included in this study. Gender appeared to be a slightly more significant factor in determining differences both in knowledge and job interest variable. However, the gender difference was significant only for a very few regions or country in each of the three student groups. Both men and women are equally interested or disinterested in foreign job assignments. The equality of education opportunity for women, their movement into the professional careers and convergence of roles could account this result.

Knowledge of a foreign language is an important factor among US students in determining their response. The US students with the knowledge of a foreign language indicated higher levels of knowledge about other regions and countries and their willingness to work abroad. This would be expected because the learning of another language also exposes students to the culture, history and the literature of other parts of the world. They would also be more interested in accepting job assignments there. However, this study did not find such "language" effect among Chilean and Peruvian students. The results indicate that the Chilean and the Peruvian students have higher knowledge of, and high interest in working abroad, there was no difference among them in terms of their language ability. Both monolingual and bi/multilingual Peruvian and Chilean students have similar values for the knowledge and job interest variables.

LIMITATIONS OF THIS STUDY AND IMPLICATIONS

This study explores the students, knowledge of other geographical regions and countries and their interest in accepting jobs abroad. It presents the finding for three student groups from the US, Peru and Chile. The study used only a small list of countries to measure students' knowledge and job interest. It did not include any country from South America. Future studied should provide a larger menu option to the respondents. At the same time, an open ended question asking the students to list countries that they would like to work in, may provide a richer response.

The study focuses upon the willingness of the students to work abroad but id does not concern itself with their ability to succeed in international assignments. Willingness is an important consideration. But future study should also include variables on family factors, foreign residency and ability to adjust to other country business and social environment.

The study focuses upon a group of students at one educational institution in each country. Each group is likely to be quite homogeneous within itself. A study that includes students from several institutions in each country may provide more variations in responses.

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John E. Spillan, University of North Carolina at Pembroke

Manmohan D. Chaubey, Penn State University-DuBois

Ramin Maysami, University of North Carolina at Pembroke

Table 1: Desire for Job Assignments and Knowledge

Job Region                         Level of Knowledge

                        Peru Mean    Chile Mean     USA Mean

Scandinavia               1.79          2.05          2.12
Eastern Europe            2.03          3.57          2.02
South America             3.74          2.11          2.33
Central America           2.35          2.45          2.17
North Africa              1.73          1.98          1.93
South-Central Africa      1.46          1.49          1.70
East Africa               1.43          1.51          1.74
West Africa               1.47          1.38          1.72
North America             3.62

Job Country

Australia                 2.86          2.87          2.62
UK                        3.22          2.98          2.87
Canada                    3.12          2.93          3.19
Germany                   2.97          3.07          2.69
France                    3.24          3.26          2.69
Japan                     2.71          2.28          2.40
Mexico                    3.33          3.26          2.88
China                     2.45          2.78          2.45
Russia                    2.22          2.33          2.16
South Africa              2.03          2.00          1.96
India                     1.87          2.05          2.02
Korea                     1.81          2.58          2.02
USA                       4.05

Job Region                   Desire for Job Assignment

                        Peru Mean    Chile Mean     USA Mean

Scandinavia               2.27          2.11          2.20
Eastern Europe            2.44          3.18          2.18
South America             3.43          2.57          2.11
Central America           2.28          3.26          1.97
North Africa              1.29          1.94          1.64
South-Central Africa      1.45          1.54          1.48
East Africa               1.40          1.51          1.45
West Africa               1.50          1.33          1.42
North America             3.86

Job Country

Australia                 3.43          3.89          3.07
UK                        3.49          3.51          2.79
Canada                    3.56          3.87          2.76
Germany                   2.97          3.57          2.40
France                    3.50          3.83          2.25
Japan                     2.60          2.44          2.19
Mexico                    2.82          3.20          2.06
China                     2.37          2.81          1.97
Russia                    2.17          2.45          1.75
South Africa              2.14          1.98          1.75
India                     1.79          2.15          1.64
Korea                     1.78          2.99          1.62
USA                       3.95

Table 2: Correlation Coefficient Between Knowledge and Desire for Job
Assignment

Correlation                               Peru

Coefficients                RK       RI        NI         NK

Regional Knowledge (RK)   1.00      .440 *   0.548 *   0.217 *
Regional Interest (RI)    0.440    1.00      0.241 *   0.499 *
Nation Interest (NI)      0.548     .241     1.00      0.433 *
Nation Knowledge (NK)     0.217     .499     0.433     1.00

Correlation                                Chile

Coefficients                RK        RI         NI         NK

Regional Knowledge (RK)   1.00     0.457 *    0.615 *    0.388 *
Regional Interest (RI)    0.457    1.00       0.348 *    0.542 *
Nation Interest (NI)      0.615    0.348      1.00       0.614 *
Nation Knowledge (NK)     0.388    0.542      0.614      1.00

Correlation                                USA

Coefficients                RK        RI        NI        NK

Regional Knowledge (RK)   1.00       .432 *   .416 *     .730 *

Regional Interest (RI)     .432 *   1.00      .771 *     .439 *
Nation Interest (NI)       .416 *    .771 *   1.00       .605 *
Nation Knowledge (NK)      .730 *    .439 *   .605 *    1.00

 *: Significant at alpha=0.05

Table 3: Difference in Mean Response by Age

               Knowledge of Country    Desire for Assignment

                 Difference by Age         Difference by Age

               Peru    Chile   USA     Peru    Chile     USA

Australia      -0.08   -0.10   -0.06   -0.24   -0.25      0.04
UK              0.00   -0.02   -0.19   -0.02   -0.05      0.23
Canada          0.36   -0.04    0.07    0.01   -0.10     -0.16
Germany         0.41    0.01   -0.18   -0.21    0.08     -0.05
France          0.16   -0.12   -0.34   -0.06   -0.15      0.03
Japan           0.04   -0.16   -0.16   -0.19   -0.09      0.06
Mexico          0.16   -0.30   -0.02   -0.26   -0.20      0.07
China           0.05    0.04    0.21   -0.04    0.10      0.02
Russia          0.14   -0.07   -0.02   -0.04    0.15      0.22
South Africa    0.00   -0.05   -0.02   -0.02   -0.11     -0.17
India           0.00   -0.06   -0.18   -0.35   -0.28 *   -0.24
Korea           0.04   -0.16    0.02    0.06   -0.47      0.14
USA             0.17                   -0.12

*: Significant at alpha=0.05

Table 4: Difference in Mean Response by Gender

              Knowledge of Country      Desire for Assignment

              Difference by Gender      Difference by Gender

              Peru   Chile    USA      Peru      Chile     USA

Australia      0.30   0.02    0.32 *    0.19     -0.01      0.03
UK             0.30   0.34 *  0.30      0.32      0.24      0.28
Canada        -0.15  -0.25 *  0.25     -0.30     -0.06      0.12
Germany        0.03  -0.09    0.17      0.31     -0.04     -0.03
France        -0.15  -0.10    0.08      0.02     -0.14     -0.14
Japan          0.03   0.03    0.54 **   0.04      0.20      0.47 **
Mexico        -0.09   0.07    0.23      0.43 **   0.10      0.29
China         -0.20   0.01    0.17      0.15      0.14      0.11
Russia         0.14   0.06    0.32 *   -0.19     -0.10      0.23
South Africa   0.18   0.07    0.20      0.16      0.42 **   0.04
India          0.11  -0.10    0.12     -0.09     -0.10     -0.01
Korea          0.27   0.25    0.33 *    0.50 **   0.71     -0.02
USA            0.14                    -0.05

*: Significant at alpha = 0.05

**: Significant at alpha = 0.01

Table 5: Difference in Mean Response by Language Ability

                     Knowledge of Country      Desire for Assignment

                  Difference by Language       Difference by Language

               Peru     Chile      USA      Peru      Chile      USA

Australia      -0.30    0.04     0.01      -0.11      0.24     0.80 **
UK             -0.01    0.36     0.51       0.27      0.25     0.65 *
Canada          0.04   -0.03     0.20      -0.11     -0.16     0.58 *
Germany         0.35    0.06     0.49 *     0.15      0.30     0.40
France          0.26    0.26     0.52 **    0.28      0.11     0.83 **
Japan           0.16    0.00     0.48 *     0.18     -0.03     0.72 **
Mexico          0.07   -0.04     0.58 **    0.24     -0.30     0.60 **
China           0.16   -0.06     0.33       0.41 *    0.02     0.83 **
Russia          0.01    0.36 *   0.13       0.24      0.01     0.23
South Africa    0.03    0.09     0.27       0.21      0.15     0.59 **
India           0.35    0.08     0.42 *     0.19      0.18     0.42
Korea          -0.11    0.08     0.47 **    0.15      1.50 *   0.56 **
USA            -0.49 *                     -0.03

*: Significant at alpha=0.05

**: Significant at alpha=0.01