Conducting international consumer ethnocentrism surveys.

Luthy, Michael R.

ABSTRACT

As a factor in consumer behavior, the construct of consumer ethnocentrism has been empirically established through the development and use of the CETSCALE instrument. The original research by Shimp and Sharma (1987) has been replicated and validated through numerous studies using samples from cultures around the world. In the current study, the role of native language presentation in measuring consumer ethnocentrism is explored; specifically, whether presentation of the survey in a subject's native language has the effect of increasing their expressed level of consumer ethnocentrism. Over 1,300 undergraduate and graduate students enrolled in programs in business, law, and computer science at a private university in Reykjavik, Iceland were invited to participate in an electronic survey using CETSCALE. Subjects were randomly assigned to one of three experimental conditions: Icelandic language only, English language only, or side-by-side Icelandic and English language presentations of the CETSCALE. Approximately 25% of the sample participated. Statistical analysis showed that native language presentation did not have an impact on the respondent's level of consumer ethnocentrism. Study limitations are also discussed.

INTRODUCTION

With the growth of world trade and the importance of new, international markets to businesses of virtually all sizes, gathering reliable and valid market and consumer research is crucial. As firms move into unfamiliar countries and cultures the potential of missteps increases. To paraphrase the Hippocratic Oath for marketing research purposes, investigators must first, "introduce no bias."

Although the use of English in business is widespread it cannot be assumed to be universal. English is spoken by far fewer potential consumers than many businesses would like in an effort to standardize processes, packaging, and of course, marketing research instruments. Even if English were to be spoken in ever increasing numbers of consumers across the globe it would remain for most a second or even third language learned.

As market researchers attempt to learn more and more about consumers, as they do so they would benefit from understanding the role that native or first-learned language plays in survey responses. This article explores one dimension of this question using an established instrument to see whether language presentation does have an effect on responses, namely consumer ethnocentrism.

CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT AND EVOLUTION

Ethnocentrism, as a concept originally developed by Sumner (1906) in the early part of the last century is a strictly sociological factor, one that distinguishes differences between so-called "in-groups," which an individual identifies with and "out-groups," regarded as antithetical to the in-group by the individual. The concept has been extended to the field of psychology, (Levine and Campbell 1972), linking it to individual-level personality systems as well as to more broad-based cultural and social-analytic frameworks. The in-group perspective has value for individuals who tend to view it as a salient standard for cognitive decision-making (Hogg and Turner 1987; Ray and Lovejoy 1986). The boundaries used for forming the in-groups and out-groups however, vary depending on the issue (Forbes 1985).

In general terms, the concept of ethnocentrism represents the tendency of individuals to view their own group as the "center of the universe", to interpret other social groups from the perspective of their group, and to reject persons who are culturally dissimilar--while blindly accepting those who are culturally like themselves (Booth 1979; Worchel and Cooper 1979; Brislin 1993). Empirical research has linked ethnocentrism with other concepts such as nationalism (Levinson 1957) and patriotism (Chesler and Schumuck 1964). As Levine and Campbell (1972) noted, this tendency can lead individuals to regard the symbols and values of their ethnic or national group as objects of pride and form attachment, whereas symbols of other groups may be regarded with contempt or even scorn.

In the latter 1980s, Shimp and Sharma (1987) expanded the discussion of ethnocentrism by investigating whether ethnocentric tendencies affected individual purchase behaviors. Their economic version of the original concept, consumer ethnocentrism, is a term coined to represent the beliefs, held by American consumers, about the appropriateness, and indeed the morality, of purchasing foreign-produced products. Reasons for such tendencies range from beliefs about the quality of imported goods to a patriotic bias against things foreign (Bikley and Nes 1982; Netemeyer, Durvasula, and Lichtenstein 1991). To individuals who are strongly consumer ethnocentric, buying imported goods is wrong because, from their perspective, it has a negative effect on the domestic economy, results in job loss, and is unpatriotic. Conversely, for those who are not strongly consumer ethnocentric, they believe foreign (i.e. out-group) products should be evaluated on their own merits without consideration to where they are produced. In functional terms, Shimp and Sharma asserted that consumer ethnocentrism provides the individual with a sense of identity, feelings of belongingness, and as they pointed out most importantly, an understanding of what purchase behavior is acceptable or unacceptable.

While the groundbreaking research of Shimp and Sharma (1987) asserted the link between ethnocentric tendencies and purchase behaviors, it was presented within the context of the American experience. Other researchers have explored the universality of the concept (e.g. in Mexico, Luque-Martinez, Ibanez-Zapata, and Barrio-Garcia, 2000; in Israel, Shoham and Brencic, 2003; and in Canada and Russia, Saffu and Walker, 2005).

The ethnocentric tendencies of Polish and Russian consumers were investigated to determine the link between these feelings and their purchase intentions (Good and Huddleston, 1995). A 1997 study (Marcoux, Filiatrault, and Cheron) surveyed Polish university students and found that patriotism is a dimension of ethnocentrism related to the preference toward Polish products. In a later study, differences between high, moderate, and low ethnocentrism groups revealed systematic country-based biases in product evaluations and attitudes toward purchase (Brodowsky, 1998).

The Brodowsky (1998) study is part of a larger group of studies that sought to shed light on the role of country-of-origin in the consumer purchase process and its relations to consumer ethnocentrism. The "country-of-origin" effect, asserts that consumers are influenced by their beliefs about the country where a product is manufactured, assembled, or branded (Tse and Gorn, 1993). The nation of manufacturer has the strongest effect on consumer preference provided the physical source is recognized by consumers (Wall and Heslop, 1986). Additional research indicates that purchasers represent the country-of-origin in stereotypical fashion, forming a relatively stable schema (Kochunny et al., 1993). Purchasers use this stereotype to judge the desirability of products from the country in question (Bilkey and Nes, 1982; Cattin, Jolibert, and Lohnes, 1982; Strutton, Pelton, and Lumpkin, 1994). In general, customers have a higher regard for market offerings from more highly developed countries and those that are perceived as more similar to their own (Cordell 1991; Lang and Crown, 1993; Wang and Lamb, 1983), as well as from their own country (Narayana, 1981; Wall and Heslop, 1986).

The implications of a consumer ethnocentric tendency have been explored in a number of settings affecting international business. For example, Lanciaux (1991) explored the impact of ethnocentrism in U.S.-Japanese trade policy negotiations. Walle (1990) in addition to Calof and Beamish (1994) investigated issues related to American manager's opinions of foreign cultures and management. In a study with potential impact on the future of global business, Grant and Wren (1993) found that student ethnocentrism was associated with negative attitudes toward the importance and propensity to enroll in courses in international business, foreign language, and business ethics.

THE CETSCALE

By use of a preliminary study, followed by an exhaustive panel screening process, and numerous purification studies, Shimp and Sharma (1987) constructed and refined a seventeen item scale, termed the CETSCALE, to measure an individual consumer's ethnocentric tendencies as they related to purchasing foreign-made versus American-made products (see Exhibit 1).

To test the CETSCALE's reliability and construct validity four separate area studies were conducted. Results indicated strong support for the instrument as a valid and reliable index of consumers' ethnocentric tendencies. With the development of a reliable scale established, Shimp and Sharma examined the question of whether ethnocentric tendencies operate uniformly across all consumers or whether certain population segments are disproportionately more or less likely to possess them. They were able to establish the link between observed differences in consumer ethnocentrism scores and the perceived threat that foreign-made products represented to an individual's quality of life and economic livelihood (Shimp and Sharma 1987).

Further research on consumer ethnocentrism was undertaken by Netemeyer, Durvasula, and Lichtenstein (1991). Their research extends the discussion by addressing one of the perceived weaknesses of Shimp and Sharma's original work; namely that the scale was developed and validated in the United States alone. Employing a university-based student sample, a four-country study involving the U.S., France, West Germany, and Japan was undertaken to assess the cross-national psychometric properties and nomological validity of the CETSCALE. The researchers found that the scale indeed was a reliable and useful instrument beyond the original U.S. sample.

RESEARCH QUESTION

The past research discussed here presented the CETSCALE in the subject's native language. Of interest in the current study is whether language plays a role in how subjects respond and therefore the measurement of consumer ethnocentrism. Given evidence that ethnocentrism affects other constructs such patriotism and views toward international trade, it is hypothesized that for multi-lingual individuals, presentation of the CETSCALE instrument in their native language will elicit higher consumer ethnocentrism scores than either a multi-language presentation or one in a non-native language.

Hypothesis: Subjects responding to the Icelandic-only presentation of the CETSCALE will report higher levels of consumer ethnocentrism than subjects in either the English-only or the side-by-side Icelandic-English experimental conditions.

SURVEY METHODOLOGY

Reykjavik University is a private institution of post-secondary education located in Reykjavik, Iceland. Its student population of over 1,300 is enrolled in undergraduate and non-doctoral graduate programs in business, law, and computer science. Permission was obtained to contact the entire student population via their e-mail accounts and invite them to visit a website where the survey was being conducted. Over the subsequent 4 week period two follow-up e-mails were sent to those who had not at the time responded.

Subjects were randomly assigned to one of three experimental conditions: an Icelandic language only presentation of the CETSCALE, an English language only presentation, or a side-by-side Icelandic and English language presentations (see Exhibit 1 for an example of the side by side presentation). Survey questions and instructions were first translated into Icelandic by a bilingual Icelander, then back-translated into English by a different bilingual Icelander. The resulting survey was subjected to a second round of translation and back translation to eliminate any final issues.

The survey asked respondents to assess their degree of agreement with the 17 CETSCALE statements. Seven point Likert scales (1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree) were used. Subjects were also asked a number of classification questions. The responses of those students for whom Icelandic was not their native language (e.g. foreign students studying at the University) or those who did not report a working knowledge of English were excluded from the analysis.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Over 25% of the student population participated in the online survey (see Exhibit 2). While the response rate varied by experimental category the minimum response rate was 22%. On gender there were roughly comparable numbers of men and women who responded. Overall undergraduate students comprised a larger share of respondents than graduate students although all programs were represented.

Given the 17-item CETSCALE instrument and 7-point Likert scales used, each individual's score can range from 17 (representing very low ethnocentric tendencies) to 119 (representing very high ethnocentric tendencies). If the hypothesis is supported, the averages should be statistically different across the three experimental conditions; and highest for the Icelandic-only condition.

The CETSCALE average for respondents in the Icelandic-only condition is 38.25. In the English-only condition the average is 37.05. From the dual-language presentation the average is 41.83. An ANOVA analysis at the 5% level suggests no statistically significant difference between the three conditions (F 2,315=1.568846, P-value= 0.209908). As a consequence it is concluded that native language presentation did not have an effect on assessment of consumer ethnocentrism.

STUDY LIMITATIONS

Iceland is a country of surprising contradictions. A small country, geographically (approximately the size of Ohio or Kentucky) and in population (approximately 300,000 in 2006) it is home to a dozen foreign embassies including those of the United States, China, and many other European countries. The result is a fairly cosmopolitan atmosphere, particularly in the capital, Reykjavik.

Students in the educational system learn Icelandic as their first language. English and Danish are also taught in the primary school system, although at a later stage. While there is some friction concerning the issue of requiring the study of Danish (Iceland gained home rule powers from Denmark in the early 20th century and formal independence in 1944) there is no such friction concerning English. With the exception of the very old, a very high percentage of Iceland's native population is bilingual.

At Reykjavik University, a private institution, there is likely some self-selection bias concerning enrollment. Almost all respondents to the survey reported working knowledge of at least one language beyond Icelandic and English--in some cases several. Additionally, many reported travel to other countries. This exposure to other cultures, and perhaps a more extensive world view based on personal experience, likely explains at least in part the relatively low CETSCALE averages observed and reported. Lastly, Iceland imports a considerable amount of its goods from European and other countries, exposing them to more world brands and products. It is possible that these factors give pause for extending the result that native language does not effect consumer ethnocentrism to other countries. Further study, including replication in other countries, including subjects who possess different levels of fluency, will more definitively resolve this issue.

The potential of this line of inquiry to the conduct of international survey efforts, particularly where issues or products hold an affective component or dimension of national pride (see the extensive literature involving country-of-origin effects) is significant.

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Michael R. Luthy, Bellarmine University

Exhibit 1. CETSCALE Statements in English and Icelandic

 1. Icelandic people should always buy Icelandic-made products.
 Islendingar aettu alltaf ao kaupa islenska framleioslu i stao
 innflutnings.

 2. Only those products that are unavailable in Iceland should be
 imported. Aoeins aetti ao flytja inn _aer vorur sem ekki eru
 faanlegar a Islandi.

 3. Buy Icelandic-made products. Keep Iceland working.
 Kaupum islenska framleioslu. Holdum vinnu i landinu.

 4. Icelandic products, first, last and foremost.
 Islenska voru, fyrst, sioast og ooru fremur.

 5. Purchasing foreign-made products is un-Icelandic.
 pao er o-islenskt ao kaupa erlenda framleioslu.

 6. It is not right to purchase foreign products, because it puts
 Icelanders out of jobs. pao er ekki rett ao kaupa erlenda voru,
 pvi _ao eykur atvinnuleysi Islendinga.

 7. A real Icelander should always buy Icelandic-made products.
 Alvoru Islendingur aetti alltaf ao kaupa islenska framleioslu.

 8. We should purchase products manufactured in Iceland instead of
 letting other countries get rich off us. Vio aettum ao kaupa voru
 sem er framleidd a Islandi i stao _ess ao lata adrar _jooir graeoa
 a okkur.

 9. It is always best to purchase Icelandic products.
 pao er alltaf best ao kaupa islenska voru.

10. There should be very little trading or purchasing of goods from
 other countries unless out of necessity. pao aettu ao vera mjog
 litil vioskipti meo, eoa kaup a vorum fra oorum londum, nema pegar
 nauosyn ber til.

11. Icelanders should not buy foreign products, because this hurts
 Icelandic businesses and causes unemployment. Islendingar aettu
 ekki ao kaupa erlendar vorur, pvi pao skaoar islensk fyrirtaeki og
 veldur atvinnuleysi.

12. Curbs should be put on all imports.
 pao aetti ao setja takmarkanir a allan innflutning.

13. It may cost me in the long-run but I prefer to support Icelandic
 products. pao kann ao kosta mig meira, _egar til lengri tima er
 litio, en eg kys ao stydja islenskar vorur.

14. Foreigners should not be allowed to put their products on our
 markets. pao aetti ekki ao leyfa utlendingum ao setja sinar vorur a
 markaoi okkar.

15. Foreign products should be taxed heavily to reduce their entry into
 Iceland. pao aetti ao skattleggja erlendar vorur verulega til ao
 takmarka innflutning _eirra i landio.

16. We should buy from foreign countries only those products that we
 cannot obtain within our own country. Vio aettum eingongu ao kaupa
 fra utlondum paer vorur sem vio getum ekki framleitt heimafyrir.

17. Icelandic consumers who purchase products made in other countries
 are responsible for putting their fellow Icelanders out of work.
 Islenskir neytendur sem kaupa vorur framleiddar i oorum londum bera
 abyrgo a ao auka atvinnuleysi meoal samlanda sinna.

Exhibit 2. Respondent Characteristics

 Icelandic-Only Dual English-
 Language Icelandic
 Version Language Version
Sample:
 Sample Size 437 436
 Respondents 132 109
 Response Rate 30.2% 25.0%
 Demographics:
 Male / Female 54% / 46% 36% / 64%
 Undergraduate / Graduate 89% / 11% 85% / 15%
 Average Age in years 28.0 31.7
 Age Range in years 21 - 54 20 - 52
Affiliation:
 School of Business 44.3% 40.7%
 - undergraduate BS

 School of Business 6.9% 10.2%
 - undergraduate diploma

 School of Computer Sci 16.0% 19.4%
 - undergraduate BS

 School of Computer Sci 3.1% 1.9%
 - undergraduate diploma

 School of Law 18.3% 13.0%
 - undergraduate BA

 School of Business MBA 10.7% 13.9%
 or MSC

 School of Computer 0.8% 0.9%
 Science MSC

 English-Only
 Language Version

Sample:
 Sample Size 434
 Respondents 96
 Response Rate 22.1%
 Demographics:
 Male / Female 51% / 49%
 Undergraduate / Graduate 90% / 10%
 Average Age in years 30.1
 Age Range in years 21 - 53
Affiliation:
 School of Business 41.1%
 - undergraduate BS

 School of Business 15.6%
 - undergraduate diploma

 School of Computer Sci 12.2%
 - undergraduate BS

 School of Computer Sci 6.7%
 - undergraduate diploma

 School of Law 14.4%
 - undergraduate BA

 School of Business MBA 8.9%
 or MSC

 School of Computer 1.1%
 Science MSC