Pets in print advertising--are we seeing more of rover and fluffy? A content analysis of four popular magazines.

Mayo, Charles M. ; Mayo, Donna T. ; Helms, Marilyn M. 等

INTRODUCTION

A dog on a leash pulls its master toward a flock of flushing pigeons in an advertisement for asthma medicine. A cat serenely naps on the couch next to a couple of apartment dwellers fretting about their home loan application in an ad for a mortgage company. A billboard purchased by a check cashing company displays two dogs--a large dog (Big Cash) and a much smaller companion dog (Little Cash).

Our favorite household pets play various roles in advertising--as major players in the key message, as message "catalysts" illuminating a key point, or as background characters that merely set a tone or mood for an ad. The connection they have to the product, service or idea being communicated occasionally is direct (i.e. a pet product), but more often is indirect, and sometimes is, arguably, outright nonexistent (i.e. a golden retriever appears in an ad for medicine). Although advertising creative directors have used dogs and cats in advertising for years, Americans' indulgences in their pets have changed drastically (Kennedy & McGarvey, 2008). Nationally, pets account for more household spending than ever before. Whereas in previous generations, Rover and Fluffy may have gotten a bed, some food and occasional trips to the veterinarian, today's pet owners pour money into such things as designer pet clothes, gourmet pet food, pet daycare, healthcare insurance for their pets and other products and services that make life for Rover and Fluffy more comfortable and secure (Ellson, 2008).

Likewise, the importance pets play in the lives of their owners has increased. More than mere companions, Rover and Fluffy now are likely to be treated by their owners as surrogate children, best friends, and partners that add priceless value to life. Holbrook (2008) agrees the role of pets as animal companions has been well documented. This supports the research of Fielding (2008). Utilizing the November 2007 Harris Poll survey data which found nine in 10 pet owners consider their pets members of their family, Fielding (2008) found women are more likely to support this statement (93% to 84%) and dog owners are more likely than cat owners to consider pets family members (93% to 89%).

If advertising reflects and amplifies cultural values, and if dogs and cats have attained positions of power in American culture, then one would expect to see dogs and cats play more significant or visible roles in advertisers' creative strategies.

The question this research attempts to answer is: How have the changed roles and increased value household pets play in our lives been reflected in advertising?

Financial and Social Significance of Pets

Pets have become a central part of American life and have, in recent years, even been credited with having a direct positive effect on the health of their owners (Allen, 2003). Pet owners represented 69.1 million (sixty-three %) American households and of these households, forty-five % had multiple pets (Wallenfang, 2005). As further reported by Wallenfang (2005), dogs numbered 73.9 million and were present in 43.5 million households while cats numbered 90.5 million and were present in 37.7 million households. As pets have become more and more important in the lives of their owners, it only stands to reason that marketers and advertisers would portray pets more in their communication messages.

Consumers spent $34.4 billion dollars in 2004 (double 1994 figures) and $36.3 billion in 2005 (APPMA, 2006) on their pets (not adjusted for inflation). During the December holidays 55% of dog owners spend an average of $13 on Rover, and although only 37% of cat owners purchase gifts for Fluffy, those who indulge their feline companions spend $30 per cat (Wallenfang, 2005). According to the APPMA National Pet Owners Survey, basic annual expenses for dog and cat owners include:

 DOG CAT

Surgical vet visits $574 $337
Food $241 $185
Kennel boarding $202 $119
Routine vet visits $211 $179
Groomer/grooming aids $107 $ 24
Vitamins $123 $ 32
Treats $ 68 $ 43
Toys $ 45 $ 29
TOTAL $1,571 $948

While the numbers indicate increased levels of spending for pets, there is also an increase in the types of products purchased for pets. Spending across all sectors from pet food and veterinarian care to toys and treats reflects the lengths Americans are willing to go to maintain their pets' healthy and happy lifestyles. In addition to basic services pet owners are willing to provide, other services purchased by pet owners include acupuncture, swimming lessons, massages, vacations, psychotherapy, photo shoots, and portrait packages.

To maintain their animals' lifestyles pet owners are active consumers of pet food, luxury products and health care. Pets and pet care has become the seventh largest retail segment in the U.S. (Schmelzer, 2005). Retail chains have emerged to meet the burgeoning needs of pet owners for food, grooming supplies, and veterinary care. PetsMart, for example, posted $4.67 billion in total sales for 2007 (http://media.corporate-ir.net/media_files/IROL/93/93506/2007_AR.pdf, 2007).

James, McMellon, and Torres-Baumgarten (2004) note pet ownership is a significant new segment of marketing, with differences in pet owner beliefs and attitudes, based on their choice of dog, cat or both dogs and cats as pets. In some instances, dogs and cats have taken the place of children in the lives of their owners. They accompany their owners in travel outside the home, giving evidence to their prominence in their owners' lives. Today major hotel chains have begun marketing to pet owners by welcoming dogs and cats. Accordingly, dogs and cats represent a new segment in the travel market, and they are allowed to fly as passengers on commercial airlines and can even earn frequent flier mileage.

Dogs and cats are the pets most associated with humans in Western culture and are the most common pets in the United States. Ownership of dogs and cats is associated with a number of psychosocial factors including companionship, cognitive development, emotional closeness, and affection. Several factors are driving the increased spending on the care of dogs and cats such as an overall increase in pet ownership and the documented health benefits of owning pets. The physical benefits of owning a dog or cat include an increased chance of surviving a heart attack, blood pressure reduction and lower levels of depression and stress. Child development scholars who have studied the role of pets in children's lives (Thelen, 2000) support pets' role in developing a child's identity and building relationships. Shumway (1999) feels cats and dogs represent a means by which urban apartment dwellers can have sympathy with the larger nonhuman environment with which they otherwise would have limited direct contact. Thus it seems pets are good for the body and the soul and analysts agree there are untapped areas for growth in the pet industry (Kennedy & McGarvey, 2008).

Although dogs and cats do have a fairly prominent place in society as companion animals for millions of Americans, they have not been studied exhaustively or exclusively in advertising.

Animals in Advertising

Advertisers use animals to attract attention or create a positive feeling about a product. They can be used to transfer desirable cultural meanings such as loyalty, pampering, and caring to products and although their meanings are not standardized across cultures, animals are standard symbols of human qualities (Phillips, 1996).

Harbrecht (1993) agrees animals are universally popular advertising tools. Animals are easily recognized for particular traits, some of which may be used to create an advantage in advertising. Consumers understand the animal meanings and consequently can link these meanings to products. Men prefer advertisements that illustrate loyalty while women prefer advertisements that illustrate a pets' enjoyment of pampering and care by humans (Magdoff & Barnett, 1989).

Using animals in advertising is also a function of efficiency because pets are so easily recognizable. By using the associations that already exist in our culture, advertisers do not have to educate consumers as to what animal characters mean. Since they are so recognizable, dogs and cats can be used as metaphors to efficiently communicate attribute information and transfer meaning between a referent and a brand (Morgan & Reichert, 1999).

In a study of animal images on products, Feldhammer, Whittaker, Monty and Weickert (2002) hypothesized mammals would be more common than fish, birds or reptiles. Cats and dogs were in the majority at 75 % of the labels analyzed and the most common attributes of "strength, power, or tenacity" were favored for the product label messages. Animals often are used as evocative visual symbols in the promotion phase of product marketing (Margulies, 1972 and Wilkie, 1990). Typically animals are used because they are a familiar part of cultures. Phillips (1997) agrees animal symbols are pictorial metaphors used to create and project an image and implicitly communicate information.

In a study of British children's television, Paul (1996) found, while farm animals were dealt with neutrally, family pets (such as dogs and cats) were accorded a positive status in fictional work. One measure of an animal's position in advertising is whether it is made to resemble humans. Anthropomorphism is criticized as being sentimental or an oversimplification of the animal's innate nature. Others, however, see it as an extension of our ability to take the role of the other and to understand the inner world of animals (Lerner & Kalof, 1999).

Pet ownership has been recognized as an important market segmentation tool that transcends product categories. Because pets become associated with self, pet ownership is a separate category of social identification that influences attitudes and behaviors (McMellon and Torres-Baumgarten 2004).

Advertising Studies

Frogs, dogs, lizards, puppies and a host of other animals have served as spokespersons for a variety of consumer products. Harbrecht (1993) agrees that for some time, advertising agencies have known people around the world respond very favorably to animals in advertisements on television and billboards, in magazines, and newspapers. However, he warns marketers to understand the international and cultural orientations of animals since they may convey different meanings to different groups or cultures.

Lerner and Kalof (1999) studied the message and meaning conveyed by animals in television commercials and how the messages might be subject to alternative readings. The authors found six themes animals portrayed in advertisements: animals as loved ones (a member of the family), as symbols (representation of logos or ideas), as tools (using animals for human use or consumption), as allegories, as nuisances, and animals in nature.

Spears, Mowen and Chakraborty (1996) proposed a model for understanding the impact of the use of animals in advertising. Their content analysis of 500 print advertisements examined the type of animal appearing in advertisements, the product class, and the anthropomorphic state of the animal. They found advertisers selectively associate particular animals with various product categories and found variation by product category when animals are shown in an anthropomorphic state.

Although animals have been the source of limited advertising research, studies have not examined the role of dogs and cats in print advertisements. As the role of pets has changed and increased, it is important to determine if print advertising has changed.

The research questions investigating the changes in a ten-year period of print advertising in this study are:

1a. How prevalent are cats and dogs in magazine advertising?

1b. Has the percentage of pet advertising in magazines increased during 1994 to 2004?

When cats and dogs appear in magazine advertising:

2. Which is used most often?

3. With which types of products are they most likely associated?

4. Are they more likely to be central figures in the ad or background figures?

5. Is the ad most likely to be a photograph, cartoon drawing, or portrait drawing?

6. Are they most likely to have pet, human or wild animal characteristics?

7. What type of relationship with humans characterizes the role of the pet?

8. What is their function?

METHODOLOGY

Magazines were chosen as the media for the research because magazines continue to remain a viable medium for advertisers. Even though Internet display advertising continues to grow (15.9% increase in 2007 to $11.31 billion) magazine media has held steady in terms of advertising expenditures. (TNS Media Intelligence, 2008). Consumer magazines incurred a 7.0% gain to $24.43 billion in 2007 while cable television spending finished 2007 at $17.84 billion, an increase of 6.5% (TNS Media Intelligence, 2008).

To gauge changes in advertising which include dogs and cats, advertisements from 1994 and 2004 issues of four popular magazines, Ladies Home Journal, Time, People, and Sports Illustrated, were examined. These magazines were chosen because of their large circulations and because they reach different audiences. Ladies Home Journal first began publishing in 1883 and is the tenth largest magazine in the U.S. in terms of circulation. In 2004, paid subscriptions for this magazine numbered 4,1 14,3 53 (Audit Bureau of Circulation website at www.accessabc.com/resources/magazines.htm, 2005).

Ladies Home Journal's audience is primarily female and features stories about health and fitness, relationships, beauty and fashion, homemaking and cooking, and family life. It is published monthly by the Meredith Corporation. Time, the nation's first weekly news magazine, was first published in 1923. Paid subscriptions in 2004 rank it 11th in size with a circulation of 4,034,272. Time offers news features covering national and international news, as well as science, business and cultural news. People, which debuted in 1974, is published by the same parent corporation as Time. The magazine is published weekly with content that focuses on celebrity and pop culture news. People's audience is mostly young people. In 2004 it was the 12th largest magazine with a circulation of 3,690,387. Sports Illustrated was started in 1954 to satisfy the information needs of America's sports fans. Its readership is primarily male. Circulation figures in 2004 rank it the 16th largest with 3,319,300 paid subscriptions (Audit Bureau of Circulation website at www.accessabc.com/resources/magazines.htm, 2005)

Because Time, People and Sports Illustrated are weekly and Ladies Home Journal is monthly, random issues of the weekly magazines were selected from each month to generate an equal number of issues for both years. All advertisements of at least a quarter page or larger were examined for the presence of dogs or cats. Besides the magazine name and year, coders recorded whether dogs and cats were present, whether humans were present, the product category of the ad, and how the pets are rendered (cartoon, portrait or photograph). See Exhibit A for the coding sheet used. Variables of interest in this study also required coders to make judgments. For example, coders determined the type of characteristics portrayed by the dogs and cats in the advertisements (wild animals, pet, or human), their relationship with humans in the advertisements (family member, companion, or none), the functionality depicted (assistant/aide, companion, expert, rescuer, teacher, entertainer, or none) and the centrality of the pet in the ad (central, prop, or background).

Two students majoring in marketing reviewed the advertisements during November and December 2005. After initial training, conducted by two of the authors, a sample of advertisements was coded to determine intercoder reliability for content analysis (See Krippendorfff, 1980 for a review of content analysis). It was determined that additional training as well as changes in variable definitions was needed. Vague wording was eliminated and definitions were redesigned to clarify how to examine the advertisements. An intercoder reliability coefficient of 82.4 using Cohen's alpha was achieved in a second reliability assessment.

RESULTS

The findings yield interesting results. The discussion below follows the order of the research questions.

1. a. How prevalent are cats and dogs in magazine advertising?

A total of 4,565 advertisements were viewed of which 132 (2.9 %) had dogs, cats, or both dogs and cats present (see Table 1). Sixty-eight (51.5 %) of these advertisements are from the 1994 sample and 64 (48.5 %) are from the 2004 sample. Ladies Home Journal is a monthly and the other magazines are weeklies, thus the number of pages of advertising is greater for this magazine than the other magazines studied. Because of this Ladies Home Journal accounted for about four in every ten advertisements reviewed in this study (43.8 % in 1994 and 41.8 % in 2004). Except for Time in 2004 and Sports Illustrated in 1994 and 2004, the proportion of advertisements with dogs and cats to total advertisements per magazine remains fairly constant, at just over 3% of the advertisements.

1. b. Has the percentage of pet advertising in magazines increased during 1994 to 2004?

In 1994, 68 of the 2,504 advertisements in the four magazines reviewed featured pets. In 2004, of the 2,061 advertisements in the four magazines, 64 featured pets. The results indicate the number of advertisements (as a percentage of the total advertisements) has increased only slightly (2.7% in 1994 to 3.1% in 2004) and this increase is not significant (at the 0.05 level).

2. When cats and dogs appear in magazine advertising, which is used most often?

According to this sample, dogs are more favored than cats by advertising directors by about three-to-one (Table 1). Dogs account for 72.7 % of the advertisements and cats account for 22 % of the advertisements in this study. Only 5.3 % of the advertisements use both dogs and cats. Overall dogs and cats declined in advertisements from 1994 to 2004, but there was a slight overall increase in the number of advertisements featuring dogs and cats together. Dogs gained favor and cats lost their appeal between 1994 and 2004 in Ladies Home Journal advertisements. Advertisements with only dogs in Ladies Home Journal accounted for 30 % of the advertisements in 1994 (15 of 50) and this increased in 2004 to 50 % (23 of 46) of the advertisements. However, Ladies Home Journal advertisements with only cats accounted for 93.8 % (15 of 16) of all advertisements in the sample in 1994 but this decreased to 53.8 % (7 of 13) of advertisements in 2004. Dogs in advertisements were limited in Time [13 of 50 (26 %) in 1994 and only 2 of 46 (4.3 %) in 2004]. Cats gained ground in advertising in People. There are no advertisements in the sample from People featuring only cats in 1994 but in 2004 six of the 13 advertisements (46.2 %) featured only cats.

3. When dogs and cats appear in advertisements, with which types of products are they most likely associated?

Dogs and cats are used to sell non-pet products in a majority of the advertisements in this study (Table 2). Advertisements for pet products (food, grooming, hygiene, health and other pet products) account for 48.5 % of the advertisements. In 1994, 38 (55.9%) of advertisements with dogs and cats present were for pet products, compared to 26 (40.6%) of advertisements in 2004. Overall, non-pet products were the subject of 30 (44.1%) advertisements in 1994 and non-pet advertisements increased to 38 (59.4%) in 2004. Ladies Home Journal and People exhibited this pattern.

4. When cats and dogs appear in advertisements, are they more likely to be central figures in the ad or background figures?

The pet is the central character in 62.1% of advertisements (See Table 3). Dogs and cats are a prop for a central character in 18.9 % and are background and/or periphery in another 18.9 %. No significant shift occurred in these variables in 2004 as compared to 1994. Ladies Home Journal had a significant increase in the prop-to-central-character and People had an increase in the pets as central characters category.

5. When dogs and cats appear in advertisements, is the ad most likely to be a photograph, cartoon drawing, or portrait drawing?

The most common way of depicting a dog or cat in magazine advertising, according to this sample, is using a photograph (see Table 4). Two-thirds of the total advertisements in this study use photographs, whereas 19.7% use cartoon drawings and 13.6 % use portrait drawings. The use of photography to show a dog or cat in advertising increased in this study in 2004 as compared to 1994. In 2004 the use of cartoons and portraits to show dogs and cats in advertising fell to 7.8 % each and the use of photography increased to 84.4%. Considering the four magazines studied, a significant shift occurred in both Ladies Home Journal and in People. Ladies Home Journal relies on cartoon and portrait drawings in 63.3 % of the advertisements and photography in 36.7 of the advertisements in 1994. But in 2004, Ladies Home Journal has cartoon and portrait drawings in 12.2% of pet advertisements and relied on photographs in 87.9% of the advertisements. People shifted from 41.2% use of cartoon and portrait drawings in 1994 to 90 % photography in 2004.

6. When dogs and cats appear in advertisements, are they most likely to have pet, human or wild animal characteristics?

Maintaining pet-like qualities for dogs and cats in advertising is the most desired strategy for advertisements in this study (Table 5). About seven in every ten advertisements with dogs and/or cats (69.7%) depict them with pet characteristics. Seventeen of the 132 advertisements in this study (12.9%) show dogs and cats with human characteristics and 15.9% of the advertisements use dogs and cats with both pet and human characteristics simultaneously. No advertisements portray dogs and cats as having wild animal characteristics, nor are any dogs and cats given both wild animal and human characteristics, nor are there advertisements with all three characteristics (wild animal, pet and human qualities) present.

7. When cats and dogs appear in advertisements, what type of relationship with humans characterizes the role of the pet?

Nearly six in every ten advertisements (59.1%) have pets but no humans present (Table 6). In advertisements with humans, however, the dog or cat is presented as a family member nearly half the time (46.3%) and as a companion about a quarter of the time (25.9%). No relationship is depicted in 27.8 % of the advertisements in this sample. Dogs and cats enjoyed a significant shift in status. Only 32% of the advertisements depict the relationship pets have with humans as a family member in 1994, but in 2004, 68% of the advertisements show dogs and cats as family members.

8. When dogs and cats appear in advertisements, what is their function?

Companionship is the function most commonly portrayed by dogs and cats (see Table 7). When functionality is portrayed, companionship accounts for 51% of the advertisements. The pet-asexpert is depicted in 33.3% of the advertisements where functionality is portrayed. Portrayals of pets as assistants or aides to humans and depictions of pets as rescuers were not present in this study. No functional relationship is depicted in 61.4% of the advertisements.

DISCUSSION

This content analysis of magazine advertising portraying dogs and cats gives mixed results. If pets have become more central to the lives of many Americans and dogs and cats have attained greater positions of power in American culture than ever before as suggested by sociologists, psychologists, and marketers, one would expect to see an increase in their use in advertising and a shift in the portrayals of dogs and cats in advertising to reflect their more central role in the lives of consumers.

However, the frequency with which pets appear in magazine advertising shows a slight decline between 1994 and 2004, but the varying portrayals of dogs and cats do suggest recognition of their growing power and changing role in Americans' lifestyles. The total number of advertisements with dogs and cats in this study decreased slightly from 1994 to 2004 (51.5% of the total advertisements with pets in them in 1994 and 48.5% in 2004). But, the advertisements in which dogs and cats appeared shifted from 1994 to 2004 from being predominantly pet products/services (55.8% in 1994) to predominantly non-pet products/services (59.5% in 2004). This suggests that over this period of time advertisers began to see greater value in portraying the relationship humans have with their pets across a broader range of products/services than just pet-related products/services. This is also reflected in the presence of pets in advertising across all non-pet product/service categories coded in the 2004 sample.

In 1994 dogs and cats were more likely to be used in advertisements for pet-related products, thus they could be viewed as "experts" for the products that meet their wants and needs. In 2004, dogs and cats were used in more advertising for non-pet products which emphasized their companionship role to the product users. In terms of their centrality in the advertisements, in both the 1994 and 2004 samples when pets appeared, they were likely to be the central character in the ad (61.8 % in 1994 and 62.5 % in 2004).

How pets are depicted in advertisements in either drawings or photographs also suggests a shift, albeit slight. Cartoon drawings of pets were used in nearly one in every three advertisements (30.9%) in the 1994 sample, but in 2004 cartoon drawings were used in less than 10 advertisements (7.8%). The use of photographs to depict pets, on the other hand, increased from 50 % in 1994 to 85% in 2004. In other words, in 2004 pets were more likely to be used by advertisers as real players with important roles in humans' lives, as photography reflects, rather than imaginary, fantastical creatures as cartoon drawing suggest.

One would expect the characteristics of pets portrayed in advertising to reflect a similar shift over this period of time, but that is not the case. Dogs and cats with pet characteristics were portrayed in about half the advertisements in both the 1994 sample (51.1 %) and the 2004 sample (48.9 %) and pets with human characteristics experienced a decline (19.1 % in 1994 to 6.3 % in 2004). This could be due to decline in use of cartoon drawings in which pets can take on human characteristics. Dogs and cats with both pet and human characteristics increased (11.8 % in 1994 to 20.3 % in 2004) but this accounted for a small proportion (15.9 %) of all advertisements with dogs and cats.

Pets' relationships with humans showed a dramatic change between 1994 and 2004 as pets were portrayed as more integrated into humans' lives. In 2004 half the advertisements with pets and humans portrayed pets as members of the family. In 1994 pets were nearly as likely to be shown as mere companions (35%) as family members (40%).

No functionality was portrayed in nearly six in every ten advertisements with pets (61.4 %) in the total sample. Of those that did, companionship was the dominant function (19.7 %) and pets-as-expert was the next most dominant (12.9%) across the total sample. Companionship increased (42.8% in 1994 and 60.9 % in 2004) and pets-as-expert decreased (46.4% in 1994 and 17.4% in 2004). This likely reflects the shift in the types of products for which dogs and cats appeared in advertising.

CONCLUSION

This content analysis of 1994 and 2004 issues of four popular magazines, Time, People, Ladies Home Journal and Sports Illustrated, has examined the role dogs and cats play in advertising. Pets have achieved a prominent status in American consumers' lifestyles as reflected in the myriad of products and services aimed at pet owners and documented by sociologists and psychologists. This study investigates whether or not magazine advertising reflects this status change. Results indicate that although the frequency of use of pets in magazine advertising actually shows a slight decline in 2004 from 1994 levels, the ways in which dogs and cats are portrayed do reflect a recognition on the part of advertisers that pets play a more important role in consumers' live than ever before. This is suggested by the variety of product/service advertising in which pets appear and a greater tendency to show pets as fully integrated into the everyday life of consumers and in the companionship role.

Because of the static nature of print, analyzing print media advertising presents some challenges, especially when judging relationships between characters. An examination of television advertising in which relationships between characters are more fluid would provide a richer examination of variables related to this facet. Magazines included in this study were chosen because of their circulation size and appeal to diverse audiences. Examinations of other publications, for example family-oriented periodicals (example: Good Housekeeping, and Southern Living), might yield different results. The time periods examined in this study, 1994 and 2004, also offer a restricted period in which shifts in pets used in advertising are expected to occur. An examination over a longer period of time would likely reveal more dramatic changes.

Magazines continue to remain a viable medium for advertisers even though Internet display advertising continues to grow (15.9% increase in 2007 to $11.31 billion) (TNS Media Intelligence, 2008). According to additional data from TNS Media Intelligence (2008) magazine media has held steady advertising expenditures. Consumer magazines incurred a 7.0% gain to $24.43 billion in 2007 while cable television spending finished 2007 at $17.84 billion and increase of 6.5%. However the role of pets in other media should be studied.

Future studies should include broadcast advertising and examine the use of pets in advertising over a longer period of time. Social and cultural characteristics such as single-parent households, adults living alone and aging adults, should be examined to explore how pets are used in advertising when these characteristics are present. The role of pets in such instances may be different than when they are absent.

A deeper examination of the types of product/service advertising in which pets appear and the attributes associated with pets might reveal information about creative strategy. For example, what characteristics of dogs most amplify product/service attributes and what characteristics of cats might do the same? Further study is also needed to determine consumer reactions to pets in general and specifically to dogs and to cats as well as to determine differences in attitudes, opinions, and interests among pet owners and non pet owners. Also of interest would be if differences can be applied to decision making for marketing and advertising efforts. As pet owners continue to increase the dollars spent on pet related products, the study of pets in advertising should garner more and varied interest.

EXHIBIT A

Coding Instructions

Summary

You are to examine all advertisements in four magazines: Time,
Sports Illustrated, Ladies Home Journal, and People. All of these
publications except Ladies Home Journal are weekly magazines.
Ladies Home Journal is monthly. Issues of Time, Sports Illustrated
and People have randomly selected for each month. You must do this
for the years 1994 and in 2004. The purpose of the study is to
examine the use and portrayals of dogs and cats in magazine
advertising. Advertising tries to evoke emotional responses from
consumers and dogs and cats possess characteristics that trigger
these responses. About 40 % of American households own at least one
dog and 36 % own at least one cat.

What to code

All display advertisements one-quarter page or larger appearing in
one of the magazines must be coded. A display ad is the opposite of
a classified ad and usually has a large headline and/or
illustration, body copy and the company's logo. It is important to
code each one so that some idea of number or percentage of
advertisements with dogs or cats in them can be determined. If no
dog or cat appears in an ad, simply mark the coding sheet
appropriately and move to the next ad.

How to code

It is important to use the coding sheet correctly. The coding sheet
is the list of variables you need to examine in each of the
advertisements. Each variable has a numerical value you must assign
from your examination of the ad and write in the space on the far
right.

Variables

The variables of interest and an explanation of the numerical
values are as follows:

Magazine:

1 = Time
2 = Sports Illustrated
3 = Ladies Home Journal
4 =
People

Year:

1 = 1994
2 = 2004

Pet Presence:

1 = None
2 = Dog
3 = Cat
4 = Dog and Cat

Note: If no pet appears in ad mark 1 in the space to the far right,
and go to next ad in magazine. Some advertisements may use a dog
and a cat. Mark those advertisements 4 in this space. It doesn't
matter how many of either or both at this point.

Human Presence:

1 = No
2 = Yes

Size:

1 = one-quarter page
2 = half-page
3 = full-page
4 = two-page
5 = advertising supplement

Note: Most of these are self explanatory. An advertising supplement
is a multi-page advertisement. It may have multiple illustrations
(cartoons, portraits, and photographs). Treat the entire supplement
as one ad.

Product category:

1 = Pet product/service
2 = Non-pet product/service

Note: If the product/service being promoted is neither pet food,
pet grooming (combs, brushes, shampoo, etc), or pet hygiene/health
(flea and tick powder, heart worm medicine, cat litter, hair-ball
remedy, etc.) nor some other product/service aimed at pet owners
categorize it as a non-pet product/service.

Number of dogs

1 = none

in the ad:

2 = one
3 = two
4 = three
5 = four
6 = five
7 = more than five

Note: These are categorical data so simply writing the number is
not suitable for statistical analysis.

Number of cats See above.

in the ad:

Rendering:

1 = Cartoon drawing
2 = Portrait drawing
3 = Photograph

Note: A cartoon drawing will exaggerate some element of animal(s):
big nose, floppy ears, huge gut, long tail, etc. A portrait drawing
will be a painting or sketch that attempts to capture what the
animal truly looks like. You should know what a photograph looks
like.

Pet characteristics:

1 = wild animal-like
2 = Pet animal-like
3 = Human-like
4 = Wild
and pet animal
5 = Wild animal and human
6 = Pet animal and human

7 = All three.

Note: A wild animal-like characteristic will show the animal in a
ferocious or threatening pose, or in some setting in the wild (the
forest, for example). A pet animal-like characteristic will show
the animal in a friendly or companion-like pose or in a setting
with humans (family), a yard, a vehicle, or home doing "pet-like"
things. A human-like characteristic will show the animal in some
pose similar to humans (sitting at a dinner table, driving an
automobile, buying a product, speaking English, for examples)

Setting of ad:

1 = In the home
2 = On the porch/in the yard
3 = In/near a
vehicle
4 = At the vet
5 = At a retail store
6 = In the wild
7
= Can't tell/no background

Note: These are pretty self-explanatory. Make sure to differentiate
between a yard and the woods (the wild). By near automobile or
truck/SUV this means about to get into, near open door of, and/or
looking into the window of these vehicles (they are not in the
vehicle but the intent of the illustration is to show they either
are about to get into or want to get into the vehicle).

Centrality of pet

1 = Central character

in ad:

2 = Prop to central character
3 = Background/ periphery.

Note: Central character means the pet occupies the center of the ad
and other elements in the illustration are secondary. Prop to
central character means some other element (a human, for example)
is the central character and he/she has a dog and/or cat with
him/her. Background/periphery means other elements in the
illustration are central to the visual focus. The dog and/or cat
is/are on the outer edges of the illustration or in the background,
behind the central focus.

Relationship

1 = No humans in ad

with humans:

2 = Family member
3 = Companion
4 = Other
5 = No relationship

Note: If no humans appear in the ad there can be no relationship
with them. Family member means the dog or cat is portrayed as a
member of the family (lying on the couch with children, in the
backseat of the family SUV, playing in the yard with children,
waiting to be fed, for examples). Companion means there is a sole
human character in the ad with whom the dog or cat is identified (A
woman is petting her cat, a child petting his/her dog, a man
scratching the ears of his dog, a child playing with his/her cat,
for examples).

Age of humans in ad:

1 = No humans
2 = Adult
3 = Child
4 = Both adult and child

Note: Advertisements tend to be pretty obvious in their depictions
so there should be not trouble differentiating between an adult and
a child. Teenagers may present a challenge, however.

Gender of humans:

1 = No humans
2 = Male
3 = Female
4 = Both male and female

Functional portrayal: 1 = Assistant/aide to human

2 = Companion
3 = Expert
4 = Rescuer
5 = Teacher
6 = Entertainer
7 = Other
8 = No functionality

Note: Assistant/aide means the dog or cat is lending its assistance
to some human or other animal (a seeing-eye dog, for example).
Companion means the dog or cat is portrayed as a faithful friend
for a human or other animal. Expert means because of the animal's
characteristics, its skills are valued (a cat's balance or a dog's
sense of smell, for examples). Rescuer means the pet is coming to
the aid of someone in distress (a St. Barnard rescuing a lost
hiker, a cat protecting its owner from a mouse, for examples),
Teacher means the pet is explaining some "law" or conveying some
information needed by the human or animal student (a dog explaining
the importance of protein in his/her diet, a cat explaining the
essence of independence, for examples). Leader means the pet is
given leadership skills that are important for the product/brand (a
dog leads its owner through a combat zone, for example).
Entertainer means the pet is portrayed as a source of entertainment
(playing Frisbee with a dog or dangling a fuzzy ball on the end of
a string for a cat to play with, for examples). If there is no
category listed for what you see as a distinct portrayal, describe
it the space provided and write 7 in the space to the right. If you
can see no functionality (a pet is shown standing alone with not
background, for example) write 8 in the space to the right.

REFERENCES

Allen, K. (2003). Are pets a healthy pleasure? The influence of pets on blood pressure. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12, 236-239.

APPMA (American Pet Products Manufacturers Association) website: www.appma.org, 2006. Accessed July 2, 2008.

Audit Bureau of Circulation website: www.accessabc.com/resources/magazines.htm, 2005. Accessed July 2, 2008.

Ellson, T. (2008). Can we live without a dog? Consumption lifecycles in dog owner relationships. Journal of Business Research 61(5), 565-580.

Feldhammer, G., Whittaker, J., Monty, A. M. & Weickert, C. (2002). Charismatic mammalian megafauna: Public empathy and marketing strategy. Journal of Public Culture, 36, 160-167.

Fielding, M. (2008). All in the Family. Marketing Management, 17(1), 7-27.

Harbrecht, D. (1993). Animals in the ad game. International Wildlife, 23.

Holbrook, M. B. (2008). Pets and People: Companions in Commerce? Journal of Business Research, 61(5), 546-564.

James, W., McMellon, C. A. and Torres-Baumgarten, G. (2004). Dogs and cats rule: A new insight into segmentation. Journal of Targeting, Measurement and Analysis for Marketing, 13, 70-77.

Kennedy, P. F. and McGarvey, M. G. (2008). Animal-companion depictions in women's magazine advertising. Journal of Business Research, 61(5), 424-430.

Krippendorff, K. (1980). Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its Methodology. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.

Lerner, J. E. & Kalof, L. (1999). The animal text: Message and meaning in television advertisements. Sociological Quarterly, 40, 565-586.

Magdoff, J. A. & Barnett, S. (1989). Perceptions of Animals in American Culture. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.

Margulies, W. P. (1972). Animal names on product may be corny, but boost consumer appeal. Advertising Age, October, 78-80.

Morgan, S. E. & Reichert, T. (1999). The message is in the metaphor: Assessing the comprehension of metaphors in advertisements. Journal of Advertising, 28, 1-12.

Paul, E. S. (1996). The representation of animals on children's television. Anthrozoos, 9, 169-181.

PetSmart's website for investor relations at: http://media.corporate-ir.net/media_files/IROL/93/93506/2007_AR.pdf, 2007. Accessed July 2, 2008.

Phillips, B.J. (1996). Advertising and the cultural meaning of animals. Advances in consumer research, 23, 354-360.

Phillips, B. J. (1997) "Thinking Into It: Consumer Interpretation of Complex Advertising Images, Journal of Advertising 26, 77-87.l

Schmelzer, R. (2005, May 9). As pet industry prospers, advertisements get more humanized. Adweek, 46, 15-16.

Shumway, David. (1999). Nature in the apartment: humans, pets, and the value of incommensurability. The Nature of Cities: Ecocriticism and Urban Environments. Ed. Michael Bennet and David W. Teague. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 255-275.

Spears, Nancy E, Mowen, John C, Chakraborty, Goutam. (1996) Symbolic role of animals in print advertising: Content analysis and conceptual development. Journal of Business Research, 37(2), 87.

TNS--The Media Intelligence Reports U.S. Advertising Expenditures Increased 0.6% in first Quarter of 2008. TNS Media Intelligence at: http://www.tns.mi.com/news/06112008-htm. Accessed July 8, 2008.

Thelen, E. (2000). Grounded in the world: Developmental origins of the embodied mind. Infancy, 1, 3-28

Wallenfang, M. (September 19, 2005). Pampering Pets. The Post Crescent.

Wilkie, W. K. (1990). Consumer Behavior, 2nd edition, Wiley and Sons, New York.

Charles M. Mayo, Kennesaw State University

Donna T. Mayo, Dalton State College

Marilyn M. Helms, Dalton State College

Table 1: Presence of Dogs and Cats in Advertisements

Magazine Time Sports
 Illustrated

Year 1994 2004 1994 2004

Total 14 4 7 7
Advertisements 20.6# 6.3# 10.3# 10.9#
with Dogs and
Cats Present

Presence *

Dog 13 2 7 7
 92.9@ 50.0@ 100.0@ 100.0@
 26.0# 4.3# 14.0# 15.2#

Cat 1 0 0 0
 7.1@
 6.3#

Dog & Cat 0 2 0 0
 50.0@
 40.0#

Magazine Ladies Home People
 Journal

Year 1994 2004 1994 2004

Total 30 33 17 20
Advertisements 44.1# 51.6# 25.0# 31.3#
with Dogs and
Cats Present

Presence *

Dog 15 23 15 14
 50.0@ 69.7@ 88.2@ 70.0@
 30.0# 50.0# 32.6# 30.4#

Cat 15 7 0 6
 50.0@ 21.2@ 30.0@
 93.8# 53.8# 46.2#

Dog & Cat 0 3 2 0
 9.1@ 11.8@
 60.0# 100.0#

Magazine Yearly
 Total

Year 1994 2004 Total

Total 68 64 132
Advertisements 51.5 48.5#
with Dogs and
Cats Present

Presence *

Dog 50 46 96
 73.5@ 71.9@ 72.7@
 52.1# 47.9#

Cat 16 13 29
 23.5@ 20.3@ 22.0@
 55.2# 44.8#

Dog & Cat 2 5 7
 2.9@ 7.8@ 5.3@
 28.6# 71.4#

* The top number represents the number of
advertisements in the sample for that cell. The
second number (in bold italics) represents the
percentage of advertisements in that cell to the
total advertisements that year for that magazine
(ex: 13/14 = .929). The third number (in bold) is
the percentage of advertisements in that cell to
the total number of advertisements for that
category for that year (ex: 13/50 = .26).

Note: The second number (in bold italics) represents the
percentage of advertisements in that cell
to the total advertisements that year for that
magazine (ex: 13/14 = .929) indicated with @.

Note: The third number (in bold) is the percentage of
advertisements in that cell to the total number of
advertisements for that category for that year (ex: 13/50 = .26)
indicated with #.

Table 2: Product Categories for Advertisements with Dogs and Cats

Magazine Time Sports
 Illustrated

Year 1994 2004 1994 2004

Total Advertisements 14 4 7 7
with Dogs and 20.6# 6.3# 10.3# 10.9#
Cats Present

Product Category *
Pet Products 4 0 0 1
 /Services 28.6@ 14.3@
 10.5# 3.8#

Non-Pet Products 10 4 7 6
 /Services 71.4@ 100.0@ 100.0@ 85.7@
 33.3# 10.5# 23.3# 15.8#

Magazine Ladies Home People
 Journal

Year 1994 2004 1994 2004

Total Advertisements 30 33 17 20
with Dogs and 44.1# 51.6# 25.0# 31.3#
Cats Present

Product Category *
Pet Products 23 18 11 7
 /Services 76.7@ 54.5@ 64.7@ 35.0@
 60.5# 69.2# 28.9# 26.9#

Non-Pet Products 7 15 6 13
 /Services 23.3@ 45.5@ 35.3@ 65.0@
 23.3# 39.5# 20.0# 34.2#

Magazine Yearly
 Total

Year 1994 2004 Total

Total Advertisements 68 64 132
with Dogs and 51.5# 48.5#
Cats Present

Product Category *
Pet Products 38 26 64
 /Services 55.9@ 40.6@ 48.5@
 59.4# 40.6#

Non-Pet Products 30 38 68
 /Services 44.1@ 59.4@ 51.5@
 44.1# 55.9#

* The top number represents the number of advertisements in the
sample for that cell. The second number (in bold italics)
represents the percentage of advertisements in that cell to the
total advertisements that year for that magazine (ex: 4/14 =
.286). The third number (in bold) is the percentage of
advertisements in that cell to the total number of advertisements
for that category for that year (ex: 4/38 = .105).

Note: The second number (in bold italics)
represents the percentage of advertisements in that cell to the total
advertisements that year for that magazine (ex: 4/14 = .286)
indicated with @.

Note: The third number (in bold) is the percentage of advertisements
in that cell to the total number of advertisements for that category
for that year (ex: 4/38 = .105) indicated with #.

Table 3: Centrality of Pets in Advertisements

Magazine Time Sports
 Illustrated

Year 1994 2004 1994 2004

Total 14 4 7 7
Advertisements 20.6# 6.3# 10.3# 10.9#
with Dogs and
Cats Present

Centrality *

Central 4 0 3 4
Character 28.6@ 42.9@ 57.1@
 9.5# 7.1# 10.0#

Prop to Central 7 3 1 0
Character 50.0@ 75.0@ 14.3@
 58.3# 23.1# 8.3#

Background 3 1 3 3
/periphery 21.4@ 25.0@ 42.6@ 42.6@
 21.4# 9.1# 21.4# 27.3@#

Magazine Ladies Home People
 Journal

Year 1994 2004 1994 2004

Total 30 33 17 20
Advertisements 44.1# 51.6# 25.0# 31.3#
with Dogs and
Cats Present

Centrality *

Central 24 22 11 14
Character 80.0@ 66.7@ 64.7@ 70.0@
 57.1# 55.0# 26.2# 35.0#

Prop to Central 2 8 2 2
Character 6.7@ 24.2@ 11.8@ 10.0@
 16.7# 61.5# 16.7# 15.4#

Background 4 3 4 4
/periphery 13.3@ 9.1@ 23.5@ 20.0@
 28.6# 27.3# 28.6# 36.4#

Magazine Yearly
 Total

Year 1994 2004 Total

Total 68 64 132
Advertisements 51.5# 48.5#
with Dogs and
Cats Present

Centrality *

Central 42 40 82
Character 61.8@ 62.5@ 62.1@
 51.2# 48.8#

Prop to Central 12 13 25
Character 17.6@ 20.3@ 18.9@
 48.0# 52.0#

Background 14 11 25
/periphery 20.6@ 17.2@ 18.9@
 56.0# 44.0#

* The top number represents the number of advertisements in the
sample for that cell. The second number (in bold italics)
represents the percentage of advertisements in that cell to the
total advertisements that year for that magazine (ex: 4/14 =
.286). The third number (in bold) is the percentage of
advertisements in that cell to the total number of advertisements
for that category for that year (ex: 4/42 = .095).

Note: The second number (in bold italics) represents the
percentage of advertisements in that cell to the total
of advertisements magazine (ex: 4/14 = .286) indicated with @.

Note: The third number (in bold) is the percentage of
advertisements in that cell to the total number of
advertisements for that category for that year (ex:
4/42 = .095) indicated with #.

Table 4: Rendering of Pets in Advertisements

Magazine Time Sports
 Illustrated

Year 1994 2004 1994 2004

Total 14 4 7 7
Advertisements 20.6# 6.3# 10.3# 10.9#
with Dogs and
Cats Present

Rendering
of Pet *
Cartoon 1 1 2 1
 Drawing 7.1@ 25.0@ 28.6@ 14.3@
 4.8# 20.0# 9.5# 20.0#
Portrait 4 0 1 2
 Drawing 5.9@ 14.3@ 28.6@
 30.8# 7.7# 40.0#
Photograph 9 3 4 4
 64.3@ 75.0@ 57.1@ 57.1@
 26.5# 5.6# 11.8# 7.4#

Magazine Ladies Home People
 Journal

Year 1994 2004 1994 2004

Total 30 33 17 20
Advertisements 44.1# 51.6# 25.0# 31.3#
with Dogs and
Cats Present

Rendering
of Pet *
Cartoon 16 2 2 1
 Drawing 53.3@ 6.1@ 11.8@ 5.0@
 76.2# 40.0# 9.5# 20.0#
Portrait 3 2 5 1
 Drawing 10.0@ 6.1@ 29.4@ 5.0@
 23.1# 40.0# 38.5# 20.0#
Photograph 11 29 10 18
 36.7@ 87.9@ 58.8@ 90.0@
 32.4# 53.7# 29.4# 33.3#

Magazine Yearly
 Total

Year 1994 2004 Total

Total 68 64 132
Advertisements 51.5# 48.5#
with Dogs and
Cats Present

Rendering
of Pet *
Cartoon 21 5 26
 Drawing 30.9@ 7.8@ 19.7@
 80.7# 19.3#
Portrait 13 5 18
 Drawing 19.1@ 7.8@ 13.6@
 72.2# 27.8#
Photograph 34 54 88
 50.0@ 84.4@ 66.7@
 38.6# 61.4#

* The top number represents the number of advertisements in
the sample for that cell. The second number (in bold
italics) represents the percentage of advertisements in that
cell to the total advertisements that year for that magazine
(ex: 1/14 = .071). The third number (in bold) is the
percentage of advertisements in that cell to the total
number of advertisements for that category for that year
(ex: 1/21 = .048).

Note: The second number (in bold italics) represents the
percentage of advertisements in that cell to
the total advertisements that year for that magazine
(ex: 1/14 = .071) indicated with @.

Note: The third number (in bold) is the percentage of
advertisements in that cell to the total
number of advertisements for that category for that year
(ex: 1/21 = .048) indicated with #.

Table 5: Characteristics of Pets in Advertisements

Magazine Time Sports
 Illustrated

 1994 2004 1994 2004

Total Advertisements with 14 4 7 7
Dogs and Cats Present 20.6# 6.3# 10.3# 10.9#

Pet Characteristics *

 Wild Animal 0 0 0 0

 Pet Animal 7 3 2 3
 50.0@ 75.0@ 28.6@ 42.9@
 14.9# 6.7# 4.3# 6.7#

 Human 2 1 3 2
 14.3@ 25.0@ 42.9@ 28.6@
 15.4# 25.0# 23.1# 50.0#

 Wild Animal & Pet Animal 0 0 0 0

 Wild Animal & Human 0 0 0 0

 Pet Animal & Human 5 0 2 2
 35.7@ 28.6@ 28.6@
 62.5# 25.0# 15.4#

 All Three 0 0 0 0

Magazine Ladies People
 Home
 Journal

 1994 2004 1994 2004

Total Advertisements with 30 33 17 20
Dogs and Cats Present 44.1# 51.6# 25.0# 31.3#

Pet Characteristics *

 Wild Animal 0 0 0 0

 Pet Animal 25 27 13 12
 83.3@ 81.8@ 76.5@ 60.0@
 53.2# 60.0# 27.7# 26.7#

 Human 5 0 3 1
 16.7@ 17.6@ 5.0@
 38.5# 23.1# 25.0#

 Wild Animal & Pet Animal 0 2 0 0
 6.1@
 100.0#

 Wild Animal & Human 0 0 0 0

 Pet Animal & Human 0 4 1 7
 12.1@ 5.9@ 35.0@
 30.8# 12.5# 53.8#

 All Three 0 0 0 0

Magazine Yearly
 Total

 1994 2004 Total

Total Advertisements with 68 64 132
Dogs and Cats Present 51.5# 48.5#

Pet Characteristics *

 Wild Animal 0 0 0

 Pet Animal 47 45 92
 69.1@ 70.3@ 69.7@
 51.1# 48.9#

 Human 13 4 17
 19.1@ 6.3@ 12.9@
 76.5# 23.5#

 Wild Animal & Pet Animal 0 2 2
 3.1@ 1.5@
 100.0#

 Wild Animal & Human 0 0 0

 Pet Animal & Human 8 13 21
 11.8@ 20.3@ 15.9@
 38.1# 61.9#

 All Three 0 0

* The top number represents the number of advertisements in
the sample for that cell. The second number (in bold
italics) represents the percentage of advertisements in that
cell to the total advertisements that year for that magazine
(ex: 7/14 = .500). The third number (in bold) is the
percentage of advertisements in that cell to the total
number of advertisements for that category for that year
(ex: 7/47 = .149).

Note: The second number (in bold italics) represents the
percentage of advertisements in that cell to the total
advertisements that year for that magazine (ex: 7/14 = .500)
indicated with @.

Note: The third number (in bold) is the percentage of
advertisements in that cell to the total
number of advertisements for that category for that year
(ex: 7/47 = .149) indicated with #.

Table 6: Relationship of Pets to Humans in Advertisements

Magazine Time Sports
 Illustrated

 1994 2004 1994 2004

Total Advertisements with 14 4 7 7
Dogs and Cats Present 20.6# 6.3# 10.3# 10.9#

Advertisements with 8 1 3 1
Dogs and Cats But 57.1@ 25.0@ 42.9@ 14.3@
No Humans * 16.7# 3.3# 6.3# 3.3#

Advertisements with 6 3 4 6
Dogs and Cats and 42.9@ 75.0@ 57.1@ 85.6@
Humans 30.0# 8.8# 10.0# 17.6#

Relationship with Humans
Family Member 3 0 2 1
 50.0@ 50.0@ 16.7@
 37.5# 25.0# 5.9#

Companion 1 0 0 1
 16.7@ 16.7@
 14.3# 14.3#

No Relationship 2 3 2 4
Depicted 33.3@ 100.0@ 50.0@ 66.7@
 40.0# 30.0# 40.0# 40.0#

Magazine Ladies People
 Home
 Journal

 1994 2004 1994 2004

Total Advertisements with 30 33 17 20
Dogs and Cats Present 44.1# 51.6# 25.0# 31.3#

Advertisements with 23 19 14 9
Dogs and Cats But 76.7@ 57.6@ 82.4@ 45.0@
No Humans * 47.9# 63.3# 29.2# 30.0#

Advertisements with 7 14 3 11
Dogs and Cats and 23.3@ 42.4@ 17.6@ 55.0@
Humans 35.0# 41.2# 15.0# 32.3#

Relationship with Humans
Family Member 0 8 3 8
 57.1@ 100.0@ 72.7@
 47.1# 37.5# 47.1#

Companion 6 5 0 1
 85.7@ 35.7@ 9.1@
 85.7# 71.4# 14.3#

No Relationship 1 1 0 2
Depicted 14.3@ 7.1@ 18.2@
 20.0# 10.0# 20.0#

Magazine Yearly
 Total

 1994 2004 Total

Total Advertisements with 68 64 132
Dogs and Cats Present 51.5# 48.5#

Advertisements with 48 30 78
Dogs and Cats But 70.6@ 46.9@ 59.1@
No Humans * 61.5# 38.5#

Advertisements with 20 34 54
Dogs and Cats and 29.4@ 53.1@ 40.9@
Humans 37.0# 62.9#

Relationship with Humans
Family Member 8 17 25
 40.0@ 50.0@ 46.3@
 32.0# 68.0#

Companion 7 7 14
 35.0@ 20.6@ 25.9@
 50.0# 50.0#

No Relationship 5 10 15
Depicted 25.0@ 29.4@ 27.8@
 33.3# 66.7#

* The top number represents the number of advertisements in the sample
for that cell. The second number (in bold italics) represents the
percentage of advertisements in that cell to the total advertisements
that year for that magazine (ex: 3/14 = .214). The third number (in
bold) is the percentage of advertisements in that cell to the total
number of advertisements for that category for that year (ex: 3/8 =
.375),

Note: The second number (in bold italics) represents the percentage of
advertisements in that cell to the total advertisements that year for
that magazine (ex: 3/14 = .214) indicated with @.

Note: The third number (in bold) is the percentage of advertisements
in that cell to the total number of advertisements for that category
for that year (ex: 3/8 = .375) indicated with #.

Table 7: Functionality of Pets in Advertisements

Magazine Time Sports
 Illustrated

 1994 2004 1994 2004

Total Advertisements with 14 4 7 7
Dogs and Cats Present 20.6# 6.3# 10.3# 10.9#

No Functionality 10 4 4 4
Portrayed * 71.4@ 100.0@ 57.1@ 57.1@
 25.0# 9.8# 10.0# 9.8#

Functionality is 4 0 3 3
Portrayed 28.6@ 42.9@ 42.9@
 14.3# 10.7# 13.0#
Type of Functionality
 of Pet in Ad
 Assistant/Aide to Human 0 0 0 0

 Companion 3 0 2 2
 75.0@ 66.7@ 66.7@
 25.0# 16.7# 14.3#

 Expert 0 0 1 1
 33.3@ 33.3@
 7.7# 25.0#

 Rescuer 0 0 0 0

 Teacher 0 0 0 0

 Entertainer 1 0 0 0
 25.1@
 33.3#

Magazine Ladies Home People
 Journal

 1994 2004 1994 2004

Total Advertisements with 30 33 17 20
Dogs and Cats Present 44.1# 51.6# 25.0# 31.3#

No Functionality 17 19 9 14
Portrayed * 56.7@ 57.6@ 52.9@ 70.0@
 42.5# 46.3# 22.5# 41.1#

Functionality is 13 14 8 6
Portrayed 43.3@ 42.4@ 47.1@ 30.0@
 46.4# 60.9# 28.6# 26.1#
Type of Functionality
 of Pet in Ad
 Assistant/Aide to Human 0 0 0 0

 Companion 5 6 2 6
 38.5@ 42.9@ 25.0@ 100.0@
 41.7# 42.9# 16.7# 42.9#

 Expert 6 3 6 0
 46.1@ 21.4@ 75.0@
 46.2# 75.0# 46.2#

 Rescuer 0 0 0 0

 Teacher 0 3 0 0
 21.4@
 100.0#

 Entertainer 2 2 0 0
 15.4@ 14.3@
 66.7# 100.0#

Magazine Yearly
 Total

 1994 2004 Total

Total Advertisements with 68 64 132
Dogs and Cats Present 51.5# 48.5#

No Functionality 40 41 81
Portrayed * 58.8@ 64.1@ 61.4@
 49.4# 50.6#

Functionality is 28 23 51
Portrayed 41.2@ 35.9@ 38.6@
 54.9# 45.1#
Type of Functionality
 of Pet in Ad
 Assistant/Aide to Human 0 0 0

 Companion 12 14 26
 42.9@ 60.9@ 51.0@
 46.2# 53.8#

 Expert 13 4 17
 46.4@ 17.4@ 33.3@
 76.5# 23.5#

 Rescuer 0 0 0

 Teacher 0 3 3
 13.0@ 5.9@
 100.0#
 Entertainer 3 2 5
 10.7@ 8.7@ 9.8@
 60.0# 40.0#

* The top number represents the number of advertisements in the sample
for that cell. italics) represents the percentage of advertisements in
that cell to the total advertisements that year for that magazine (ex:
3/14 = .214). The third number (in bold) is the percentage of
advertisements in that cell to the total number of advertisements for
that category for that year (ex: 3/12 = .250).

Note: The second number (in bold the percentage of advertisements in
that cell to the total advertisements that year for that magazine (ex:
3/14 = .214) indicate with @.

The third number (in bold) is the percentage of advertisements in that
cell to the total number of advertisements for that category for that
year (ex: 3/12 = .250) indicate with #.