The health-oriented market: a lifestyle model, empirical test, and implications for market segmentation strategy.

Bahn, Kenneth D. ; Granzin, Kent L. ; Wright, Newell D. 等

INTRODUCTION

Despite the emphasis given these issues in the marketing literature, consumers of today are faced with more than just the task of having to make product and brand choices in the marketplace. More basically, they have to choose from among the many alternative lifestyles available to them (Kraft & Goodell, 1993). Because their choices of products and brands reflect their basic lifestyle, consumers' selection of a particular lifestyle alternative underlies their consumption patterns (Drug Store News, 1996). Accordingly, their basic lifestyles hold direct implications for the marketers who seek to serve these consumers (Loro, 1992).

The notion of people choosing a lifestyle like they would choose a product may be the very basis for developing segmentation strategies. Lifestyle segmentation is certainly not a new concept, but the segment of persons that chooses a lifestyle bases on the confluence of nutrition and physical fitness behaviors is relatively new and little empirical support has found its way into the literature. The present study proposes a participation model that encompasses a healthy lifestyle by incorporating both nutrition and physical fitness and demographic and psychological antecedents. Studies involving segmentation have focused on many topics and abound in the marketing literature. Leutzinger and Hunnicutt (1996) applied marketing concepts to worksite health promotion programs; Wyner (1996) considered response function as a new segmentation variable . Thus segments were defined on the basis of similar responses; some sort of meaningful behavior. Brown (1992), identified three distinct segments based on fitness behaviors; while Dimance and Samdahl (1994), suggest that consumption of leisure is a subset of broader patterns of consumption housed in consumer behavior. Sandor (1994) found that attitudes toward health and toward food could be used to segment markets successfully; Thompson and Kaminski (1993) found that lifestyle with other variables could be used to segment on the basis of service quality expectations. Further, O'Connor and Sullivan (1995) found brand preference segmentation produces more interpretable and managerially useful segmentation results than benefit/attributes desired. Thus, many person-based variables have been used to segment desirable markets. The present study compliments this body of literature by offering a new conceptual model that considers lifestyle choice in the participation of nutrition and physical fitness, and lastly, providing an empirical test.

One basic lifestyle that has gained increasing attention from consumers, scholars, marketing practitioners, and society as a whole is that pattern of activities that reflects an explicitly healthful orientation (Kraft & Goodell, 1993; Taylor, 1991). In the positive vein, these activities can be viewed as an attempt to develop and/or maintain "wellness," a state of emotional, intellectual, physical, occupation, social, and spiritual well-being (Leafgren & Elsenrath, 1986). Wellness is attained by making certain choices relevant to exercise, nutrition, health knowledge, health care delivery, physical and mental health, and personal safety (Duffy, 1989; Kraft & Goodell, 1993; Moorman & Matulick, 1993). In particular, persons who actively seek wellness do so by choosing activities, and consequently the products and services to support them, that importantly emphasize their concern for nutrition and physical fitness (Kraft & Goodell, 1993). If persons shape their lifestyle to feature appropriate participation in these two broad types of behaviors, they can benefit both their physical and their psychological functioning. With respect to physical benefits, nutritionally correct consumption can supply body organs and tissues with proper nutrients; increase blood flow; and reduce weight, stress, cardiovascular disease, cancer, and osteoporosis-related problems. Proper exercise can promote strength, stamina, and an attractive body form; maintain normal cardiovascular functioning; produce good cholesterol; increase metabolism; and burn excess calories (Blair, 1988; Cooper & Offer, 1990). The psychological benefits of a health-oriented lifestyle include desired body image; greater self-esteem, assertiveness, autonomy, confidence, motivation, achievement, internal locus of control; a positive orientation to life; and improved well-being (Sonstroem, 1988; Oman & McAuley, 1993). For this reason, those persons who pursue a health-oriented lifestyle constitute a major market, one that can be profitably served if the appropriate marketing strategy is used (Kraft & Goodell, 1993).

This study investigates specific demographic and psychological characteristics of persons that lead to participation in a particular lifestyle that focuses on nutrition and physical fitness behaviors. To this end, this study examines the process of influence leading to a health-oriented lifestyle, a pattern of activities that manifests strict requirements for nutritional food alternatives and an active, often dominating pursuit of physical fitness. This is a study of the process leading to participation in nutrition and physical fitness related activities. This study is clearly about individuals and not groups, but has implications for marketers that develop strategies based on individuals with similar behavioral patterns. These individuals with similar behavioral patterns, form potential market segments.

COMPONENTS OF A HEALTH-ORIENTED LIFESTYLE

This study investigates the influence of several antecedent influences on consumers' performance of these two most beneficial activities that constitutes a health-oriented lifestyle. It presents a new model in a new context and tests the proposed model that integrates constructs from many different disciplines in order to get at the crux of persons' lifestyle choices. The model integrates psychological constructs such as concerns, attitudes, and knowledge to explain persons' behavioral involvement in nutrition and physical fitness. Previous models performed bivariate analysis while the proposed model looks at the influence of all the variables in the model as a process and not piecemeal. Further, the present study considers marketing implications from the standpoint of how to develop viable segments based on similar behavioral patterns with respect to nutritional food choices and physical fitness activities.

Nutrition

Previous research involving from nutrition from a segmentation approach has examined persons' ability to respond cognitively to different formats for nutrition information (Rudell, 1984). Researchers have also examined the influence of persons' nutrition-related attitudes on restaurant patronage (Granzin & Bahn, 1988), and the effect of their knowledge of nutrition issues on their food choices (Barr, 1986; Signorielli & Lears, 1992). Additional research has emphasized persons' processing of information about nutrition, focusing on their use of nutrition information on grocery labels in making brand choices (Jacob, Chestnut & Silberman, 1977; Russo, Staelin, Nolan & Metcalf, 1986), in different store settings, and by persons with different demographic profiles and different levels of nutrition knowledge (Assam & Bucklin, 1973; French & Barksdale, 1974; Lenahan, 1973; Haralson et al., 1992). This research has found consumers to have a relatively low level of knowledge of nutrition (Jacoby et al., 1977; Haralson et al., 1992).

These studies have generally focused on either persons' use of information or on how their concern for nutrition influence their specific choices (e.g., brand selection) in the marketplace. In the process, this research has neglected the part played by nutrition in persons' broader lifestyle patterns of behavior. Of course, other academic areas, such as the field of nutrition itself, have contributed to our knowledge of persons' involvement with nutrition. For example, nutritionists and dieticians now warn people not merely to restrain their total intake of calories, but to also assess the fat content associated with these calories (French, Jeffery & Wing, 1994; Sobal, Revicki & DeForge, 1992). They also warn people to exclude large amounts of animal fats, simple sugars, and sodium from their diets (Haralson, Sargent & Schuchter, 1992, Walton, 1987). Therefore, reflecting generally-accepted knowledge, the present study considers positive involvement in nutrition to reflect low intake of salt, fat, and simple sugars; and high intake of complex carbohydrates, fiber, fruits, vegetables, fish, and poultry (Kirk & Gillespie, 1990; Walton, 1987). In an attempt to fill a gap from the existing knowledge of nutrition, Moorman and Matulich (1993) studied the influence of health knowledge and income on positive health behaviors and found empirical support. Although the gap has been somewhat narrowed, knowledge concerning amore integrated process model of this health-oriented lifestyle as not been attempted. The proposed research seeks to fill this gap and contribute empirical findings that should shed new light on these persons' who seek healthy alternatives in food and exercise choices that dominate their life.

Physical Fitness

For this study exercise choices is the operationalization of physical fitness. Exercise is those physical fitness activities designed to develop flexibility, muscular strength, stamina, and cardiovascular functioning. Exercise has received considerably less attention from marketing scholars than has nutrition, despite its centrality to persons' health-oriented lifestyle. Research outside the field marketing indicates why exercise should be a foundation component of a model based on a health-oriented lifestyle (Sonstroem, Harlow & Joesphs, 1994; Tappe, Duda & Ehrnwald, 1989; Duda & Tappe, 1989; Dishman, Sallis & Orenstein, 1985). Because lifestyle as a way of living comprises persons' characteristic pattern of behaviors (Veal, 1991), exercise activities join with nutritional food habits to define persons' complete health-oriented lifestyle (Lee, 1993; Marcus, Eaton, Rossi & Harlow, 1994; Rabinowitz, Melamed, Weisberg & Tal, 1992; Verhoef, Love & Rose, 1992). The only study investigated from a marketing perspective was conducted by Kraft and Goodell (1993) and was published in the health care marketing. They sought to discover the characteristics of the health conscious consumer by identifying different lifestyle choices that may aid a persons desire to live a more healthy life. They propose that persons who engage in particular wellness activities such as health environment sensitivity, nutritional awareness, physical fitness, stress management and self-responsibility will have a higher quality of life and lifestyle. The present study supports these findings and seeks to extend them by developing a broader based perspective on a healthy lifestyle, that is a wholistic approach that not only incorporates awareness and beliefs, but also many behaviors that constitutes a healthy approach to life. This study presents an extension of the previous research published in the physical fitness literature. It seeks to accomplish this by investigating the process of influence on persons' lifestyle using the notion that this lifestyle comprises those activities persons select to gain both physical and psychological benefits from consumption of nutritional food choices and physical fitness activities.

Research Questions

On this basis, these research questions emerge: (1) what is the influence of consumers' psychological involvement in nutrition and exercise on their health-oriented lifestyle? (2) to what extent are these twin components of the process of influence on lifestyle interrelated (i.e., do consumers concentrate on only one of these components, or do they integrate the two)? and (3) what is the role of other personal characteristics, represented here by demographics, in this process of influence?

PREVIOUS RESEARCH IN THE AREA OF A HEALTH-ORIENTED LIFESTYLE

Given the dearth of consumer research involving the influence of nutrition and exercise on consumption-related behavior, but not as a process or without lifestyle choice considerations, it is fortunate other scholarly fields have examined this issue. In fact, some scholars have modeled certain aspect(s) of this process of influence (e.g., Becker & Maiman, 1975; Blair, 1988; Gottleib & Baker, 1986; Homer & Kahle, 1988; Lau, Hartman & Ware, 1986; Pender, 1982, 1987; Pender & Pender, 1986; Sonstroem, 1988; Weitzel, 1989). Especially pertinent to this study, the broader behavioral literature supplies support for selecting certain psychological constructs to include in the process of influence proposed to lead to a health-oriented lifestyle. For example, many scholars have linked attitudes toward nutrition and physical fitness with either nutrition- or and exercise-related behaviors (Anderson & Shepherd, 1989; Hollis et al., 1986; McIntosh et al., 1990; Verhoef et al., 1992; Harris et al., 1992; Storz, 1983). Empirical support has also been found for the association of desired appearance and body image with nutritional food choices and participation in physical fitness activities (Witte et al., 1991; Casper & Offer, 1990; Davies & Furnham, 1986; Dishman & Gettman, 1980; Duda & Tappe, 1988; Ganely, 1989; Hayes & Ross, 1987; O'Connell & Velicer, 1988; Walton, 1987). Another, more recent study that looks at the process persons use to make choices about health orientation was performed by Tudor and Carley (1995). They found that more affective components rather than cognitive components of the decision process aided persons in their choice to use a long term health care facility. This studied decision process is analogous to the decision process investigated in the present study to uncover the flow of influence of nutritional related food behaviors and physical fitness behaviors.

A PROPOSED MODEL OF THE INFLUENCES ON A HEALTH-ORIENTED LIFESTYLE

The proposed model describes the process of influence on a health-oriented lifestyle, shown to flow from left to right in the Figure presented here. Support for the proposed linkages comes from previous research in a number disciplines where nutrition- and physical fitness-related behavior have been investigated. To keep the present study empirically manageable, the model features ten variables that represent seven basic constructs, with the Demographics construct split into four sub-constructs a la Moorman and Matulich (1993). The characteristics are constructs/variables that are elements of the flow of influence that constitutes the process in question. Each of the constructs in the flow of influence plays a part in the total process and has implications for developing strategy aimed at specific segments of people. It influences subsequent variables in the process. Some constructs come before others; thus they are antecedent to their subsequents and present challenges to marketers trying to cater to persons with similar attitudinal and behavioral patterns.

[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]

This section introduces and provides the rationale for the constructs of the model and their proposed interrelationships. The mode of presentation is to discuss each construct of the model in turn and, for the endogenous constructs, to propose causal influences from antecedent constructs. These proposed relationships are subsequently stated as formal hypotheses for empirical investigation.

Demographics as an Exogenous Construct

The flow of influence begins with demographics. Demographics and specifically the four measure of demographics chosen in this study constitute the basic person and are not generally influenced by psychological constructs or behavior, but are usually the influencing constructs. Numerous previous studies have associated demographic variables with various forms of involvement with nutrition and physical fitness. While many such variables could be included in the model, to permit an empirical test of the proposed integrated model found in the Figure, this research concentrates on a limited, but representative set of four demographics (sub)-constructs: marital status, gender, age, and what is here termed success. Success as achievement in life has been considered in various ways by researchers. This study uses education and occupational prestige to concisely represent success.

Exercise Attitudes as an Endogenous Construct

Conceptually, the construct of exercise attitudes represents consumers' cognitive and evaluative involvement in exercise-related issues. The literature reports that consumers who have higher socio-economic status have higher involvement in exercise-related issues (Firebaugh, 1989; Rudman, 1989; McAuley et al., 1991) in particular, a higher attitudinal involvement (Hope, 1988; Ferguson et al., 1989; McAuley et al., 1991). Thus, the model proposes that more successful persons hold supportive attitudes toward exercise-related issues. More formally,

H1: More positive exercise attitudes are linked with greater success.

Nutrition Knowledge as an Endogenous Construct

Nutrition knowledge represents the beliefs consumers hold about the nutritional content of available food alternatives. Researchers have linked various demographics, including those here considered reflective of Success, with knowledge of nutrition. Specifically, previous research shows persons with higher income and education have more knowledge about nutrition (Kirk & Gillespie, 1990; Moorman & Matulich, 1993; Schafer & Schafer, 1989). Other research has learned that women are more knowledgeable about nutrition issues (McIntosh et al., 1990; Prohaska et al., 1985). Additionally, it follows that since women, generally, have greater concern for the family, they should also be more knowledgeable about food-related issues. Thus, previous research and the above argument suggest:

H2: Greater nutrition knowledge is associated with (a) greater success, (b) female gender, and (c) married marital status.

Thus, both of these psychological constructs are included in this study because they have been successfully shown to influence behavior. Attitudes and knowledge are certainly antecedents to behavior and felt important in this study because of its focus on integration.

Exercise Benefits as an Endogenous Construct

The construct presented in the Figure is Exercise Benefits. This construct is included in this study because of its importance in describing the many reasons why persons may choose physical fitness as a lifestyle choice. The popular press has indicated on several occasions the benefits from a frequent exercise. Previous studies have linked various demographics with interest in obtaining such benefits from exercise as stamina, strength, cardiovascular health, peace of mind, stress reduction, and stronger self-image (Hope, 1988; McAuley, Courmeyer & Rudoplh, 1994; Oman & McAuley, 1993). Scholars in Clinical Psychology, Nursing, Social Psychology, Sports Studies, Education, and Sports Medicine have empirically linked higher education, occupational status, and income with a stronger desire to obtain these benefits from regular exercise (Blair, 1988; Gottlieb & Baker, 1986; Pender, 1982; Pender, 1986; Pender & Pender, 1986; Sonstroem, 1988). Further, older persons are more likely to emphasize philosophical benefits (Rudman, 1989), both mental and physical health-related benefits (Duda & Tappe, 1989; Koslow, 1988), and the intrinsic role of mastery over one's body (Summers, Machin & Sargent, 1983). Thus, a marketing perspective is needed in that application of these many other disciplines leads to the offering og products and services to facilitate benefits sought from exercise activities.

Research has also linked general attitudes toward physical fitness with emphasis on fitness benefits. These studies have shown that persons focus their fitness-related attitudes on those specific benefits they can derive from exercise; for example, on less stress and tension (Gephardt & Crump, 1990; Hendrix, Ovalle & Troxeller, 1985; Brown & Siegel, 1988), greater physical strength and stamina, more attractive appearance and body image, and reduced cardiovascular disease (Ferguson et al., 1989; Godin & Shepherd, 1986; Rea, 1987). Duda and Tappe (1989) linked more favorable attitudes of middle-aged and elderly exercisers with their greater recognition of the health benefits of participating in a regular exercise program. On this basis, the model posits that stronger emphasis on the benefits of exercise stems from greater success in life, being older, and viewing exercise more favorably.

H3: Greater Exercise benefits relate to (a) greater success, (b) older age, and (c) more favorable exercise attitudes.

Nutrition Concerns as an Endogenous Construct

Nutrition concerns represents persons' interest in gaining proper nutrition and receiving its benefits; more specifically, their anxiety and apprehension about such nutrition-related issues as fat, cholesterol, and dieting. Previous research links demographics with these concerns, showing that persons with lower socio-economic status suffer from more eating disorders and the resulting stress and tension (Ganley, 1989; Kulik & Mahler, 1987), while those with higher SES experience greater internal locus of control in health-related activities (Abella & Heslin, 1984). Females express greater concern about their body image and appearance than males (Casper & Offer, 1990), and adolescent females are more anxious about their body shape (Davies & Furnham, 1986). Notably, women feel a greater concern than men about nutrition issues (McIntosh et al., 1990; Prohaska et al., 1985). Further, Nayga (1997) found that black, female, higher educated and non-working main meal planners generally perceive nutrition as more important than do others and place more emphasis on nutrition in providing meals.

The model also proposes that knowledge of nutrition influences these concerns. Granzin and Bahn (1988) found a link between restaurant patrons' beliefs about nutrition and their concern for the type of benefits they received. This linkage has been further supported empirically by various other behavioral studies that show increased knowledge about, nutrition stimulates persons' concern; e.g, regarding their nutrition intake (Storz, 1983; Anderson & Shepherd, 1989; McIntosh et al., 1990; Signorielli & Lears, 1992; Trent, 1992).

The influence of exercise benefits on nutrition concerns issues from the recognition that Americans' interest in physical well-being is largely focused on their concern for an attractive body image; specifically, their fear of being overweight (Lau, 1986; Davies & Furnham, 1986; Storz, 1983). As to health-oriented segment continues to mature, those persons who see benefits of exercising also are concerned about what they eat. For example, many popular programs are endorsed in mass marketed magazines prescribe that people should both exercise and watch their food intake to insure a health-oriented lifestyle as well as maintain proper weight levels. Therefore this link is included in the proposed model because as persons choose the time of lifestyle that best fits themselves, they are by nature concerned with the aspects that constitutes their choice. Thus, the model found in the Figure posits those most concerned about nutrition are more successful, married, female, older, more knowledgeable about nutrition, and more desirous of the benefits of exercise.

H4: Nutrition concerns increases with (a) greater success, (b) female gender, (c) married marital status, (d) older age, (e) greater nutrition knowledge, and (f) greater exercise benefits.

Exercise Behavior as a Criterion Construct

Exercise behavior comprises a variety of activities explicitly or implicitly chosen to support persons' ability to (1) perform strenuous physical activity with vigor and without excessive fatigue, and (2) demonstrate physical activity traits and capacity that are consistent with minimal risk of developing hyperkinetic diseases. In general, exercise supports one's general good health and one's capacity to feel good, look good, enjoy life, work efficiently, and handle life's emergencies and for these reasons are included in this research as one of two criterion variables. Exercise behavior reflects a variety of behavioral choices. For example, among other indicators, participants' exercise regimen may be defined by the number and type of activities habitually pursued (Gottlieb & Baker, 1986; Rowland, Franken & Harrison, 1986; Stephens, Jacobs & White, 1985), or by the frequency and duration of participation (Deeter, 1988; Duda & Tappe, 1989; Rowland, Franken & Harrison, 1986).

Previous studies demonstrate that demographic characteristics influence participation in physical fitness activities. Persons with higher SES (Rea 1987) and occupational prestige (Stephens, Jacobs & White, 1985) are more likely to exercise regularly. Verhoef et al. (1992) found married women exercise less than single women, but that married men exercise more than single men. Other research found males participate more regularly in exercise activity and for longer periods of time (Doyle, 1989; Ferguson et al., 1989; Firebaugh, 1989). Younger persons are more likely to run/jog (Doyle, 1989), and physical activity generally decreases with age (Stephens, Jacobs & White, 1985), although the influence of age varies with the activity (Doyle, 1989). A study that segmented the fitness market into three distinct groups was performed by Brown (1992). His three segments were classified as Winners who believe that staying physical fit will enable to to stay ahead in their business careers. The second group, Dieters, are mainly interested in weight control and physical appearance and exercise to obtain this goal. The third segment, Self-improvers, see exercise as a way to feel better. Further, Brown (1992), related specific demographic characteristics of each segment. Winners are younger, Dieters are older and female, and Self-improvers are more likely to be single.

Numerous studies have linked more supportive attitudes about physical fitness with greater participation in exercise (e.g., Crawford & Eklund, 1994; Duda & Tappe, 1988, 1989; Dishman, Sallie & Orenstein, 1985; Ferguson et al., 1989; Field & Steinhardt, 1992; Godin & Shepherd, 1986; Slenker et al., 1984). For instance, Deeter (1988) showed attitudinal commitment to explain participation in exercise.

Researchers have also shown that persons who require certain benefits of exercise participate in the physical activities held to provide these beneficial outcomes (Dishman, Sallis & Orenstein, 1985; Duda & Tappe, 1988; Godin & Shepherd, 1966; Weber & Wertheim, 1989). This relationship has emerged for (1) various general benefits (John & Miaoulis, 1992; Maehr & Braskamp, 1986), specific benefits such as self-image, appearance, and a positive outlook on life (Dishman, 1982; Dishman, Ickes, and Morgan 1980; Dishman and Ickes 1981), (2) diverse activities, such as jogging (Slenker et al., 1984), and (3) various classes of exercisers, such as arthritic patients (Ike, Lampman & Castor, 1989) and adolescents with insulin-dependent diabetes (Campaigne et al., 1985). Taken together, these studies suggest participation in exercise increases with achieving success in life; being single, male, and younger; holding favorable attitudes; and recognizing the benefits of exercise.

H5: Exercise behavior increases with (a) greater success, (b) single marital status, (c) male gender, (d) younger age, (e) more favorable exercise attitudes, and (f) stronger exercise benefits.

Nutrition Behavior as a Criterion Construct

Nutrition behavior as proposed in the Figure, represents the choice of nutritional food alternatives for consumption (e.g., vegetables, fruit, and whole wheat bread), regardless of the consumption context. The basic issue is the relative frequency with which consumers make nutritional choices from various types of food that may differ considerably in their nutritional content. Functionally, consumers may encourage a healthy body and mind by eating more of nutritional, beneficial foods and/or by eating less of non-nutritional, harmful foods. Because nutritional food choices is at the core of a health-oriented lifestyle it is of central focus to this study and becomes the second of two criterion variables.

Researchers have associated demographics with food selection, showing that persons with higher education and higher income, higher occupational prestige of the household head, female gender, married status, and older age are more likely to choose more nutritional food alternatives (Amstutz & Dixon, 1986; Armstrong, Lange & Stem, 1990; Berger & Leigh, 1989; Block, Rosenberger & Patterson, 1989; Brown, 1992; Granzin & Bahn, 1988; Hayes & Ross, 1987; Hollies et al., 1986; Kirk & Gillespie, 1990; Mathios, 1996; Moorman & Matulch, 1993; Peterkin, 1986; Schafer & Schafer, 1989; Schlosberg, 1987; Trent, 1992).

Previous behavioral research in this context has linked beliefs with behavior. For example, Amstutz and Dixon (1986) and Ippolitio and Mathios (1990) found that expanded education and nutrition programs increase participants' knowledge(Moorman & Matulich, 1993; Maehr & Braskamp, 1986) about nutrition, which knowledge subsequently influences purchase and consumption of more nutritional food alternatives in positive fashion. Other research has associated nutrition beliefs (Anderson & Shepherd, 1989) and, more specifically, knowledge of nutrition (Barr, 1986) with the choice of healthful food alternatives.

Research has also found concern for nutrition related to nutrition-related behavior. For instance, Contento and Murphy (1990) found dieters who are more concerned about changing their body image are more likely to choose nutritional food as a way to lose weight. Lau, Hartman, and Ware (1986) showed persons' strongly held values involving health-related issues (which, by inclusion, should entail their nutrition concerns) affect their health-oriented behaviors. Further, research has positively linked the symbolic health concerns emulated in body image and appearance with nutritional food choices (Walton, 1987; Hayes & Ross, 1987; Casper & Ganley, 1990; Skinner et al., 1991). In sum, previous research supports the proposition that persons who follow more nutritional food habits are more successful, married, female, and older; also, they know more about nutrition and are more concerned about gaining nutrition.

H6: Nutrition behavior increases with (a) greater success, (b) married marital status, (c) female gender, (d) older age, (e) greater nutrition knowledge, and (f) stronger nutrition concerns.

Exercise Behavior and Nutrition Behavior as Complementary Concepts

The Gestalt concept of an integrated health-oriented lifestyle espoused here suggests an interdependence between persons' behavioral involvement in exercise and nutrition as noted in the Figure. Various scholars have used previous empirical findings as justification for including both types of behaviors in their conceptualizations of the influences on a healthful orientation toward life (e.g., Blair, 1988; Gottlieb & Baker, 1986; Harris & Koehler, 1992; Pender, 1982, 1987; Weitzel, 1989). The notion of a fully integrated lifestyle suggests that, once participants choose an exercise program as the means of achieving certain health-related benefits, consistent nutritional food choices will more likely follow, and vice versa (Brown, 1992). As a concrete illustration, many fitness centers have successfully installed health-food bars, thus promoting their clients' parallel involvement in both nutrition- and exercise-related behaviors. In complementary fashion, persons who enjoy eating have been known to view exercise as the means of burning extra calories they have ingested. Thus, the two behavioral constructs may be conceived to exert reciprocal, positive influences on each other.

H7: There is a positive two-way flow of influence between nutrition behavior and exercise behavior.

Clearly, justification for the linkages proposed in this model are numerous, but because they have found empirical support in other context does not an assurance that they will find empirical support in the context of the present study. In sum, the present study is attempting to investigate a process model of persons' who participate in specific nutrition and physical fitness activities as a conscious lifestyle choice.

METHOD

Data Collection

Survey data were collected from a sample of the residents of a medium-sized community in the southeastern U.S. A total of 370 adults, aged 18 and older and split evenly between males and females, were contacted according to a random area cluster sample of dwellings. The sampling frame included all sixteen sections of town that were delineated by the municipal government. Respondents completed a self-administered questionnaire in the presence of trained interviewers, which served to motivate the cooperation of the respondents, to answer any questions that might arise, and to monitor the progress of the respondents.

Measurement

Five-point Likert scales were used to measure exercise attitudes (e.g., "People who exercise regularly tend to have more energy than those who don't"), nutrition concerns (e.g., "I am concerned about my cholesterol level"), and nutrition knowledge items (e.g., "Red meat is lower in fat than poultry"). The Nutrition knowledge items were combined to form a composite index by adding correct scores and subtracting incorrect scores, thus creating a scale where a higher positive score connotes greater correctness of and confidence in the respondent's answer. Correctness of response to these items was judged by the working knowledge of one of the authors and two experts in the area of nutrition. Each person judged the correctness of the responses and the judges were 94% in agreement on what represented a correct response to the nutrition knowledge items.

Exercise benefits (e.g., "Ability to handle stress"), was operationalized by rating the importance of each benefit on a five-point scale. Information on nutrition behavior came from reports of frequency of consumption of food types (e.g., fresh vegetables, potato chips, complex carbohydrates) on a seven-point scale. Exercise behavior, was operationalized in three measures: (1) duration of participants' average workout on a scale using five ranges stated in minutes per day (e.g., 1-19 minutes/day), (2) frequency of workouts on a scale using four ranges stated in days per week (e.g., 1-2 days/week), and (3) total number of popular fitness activities pursued at least once a week. Demographics were obtained using standard items for marital status, gender, age, and education; occupational prestige was measured by coding reported occupation using Duncan's Index (University of Illinois Bureau of Economic Research, 1990).

Data Analysis

The model was tested using structural equation analysis. Because most constructs were operationalized using multiple measures, the complete model being tested was relatively complex. Thus, it was necessary to establish the measurement model separately at the first stage of the structural equation analysis procedure (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988; Herting & Costner, 1985). Exploratory factor analysis and reliability analysis were used to identify those items that performed best as indicators of the constructs. Then, confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to form a measurement model consisting of four exercise attitudes, three exercise benefits, three nutrition concerns, and four nutrition behaviors.

Table 2 presents the items retained as indicators for the subsequent structural analysis, which was conducted using LISREL 7 (Joreskog & Sorbom, 1989). The seven constructs portrayed in the basic conceptual model were treated as ten constructs for empirical investigation in which four separate demographics constructs were recognized as sub-constructs. Because of their conceptual closeness, the demographics measures for occupational prestige and education were taken as formative measures of a single construct (Fornell & Bookstein, 1982) termed success, while marital status, gender, and age were treated individually. The structural analysis employed the matrix of correlations among the 23 indicators shown in Table 1 to obtain easily interpretable standardized values for the parameter estimates.

EMPIRICAL RESULTS

Support for the Measurement Model

Table 2 presents the standardized pattern coefficients and the test statistics that indicate the quality of the measurement model. The first pattern coefficient for each construct was set at 1.0 to establish the scale for the construct; therefore, this coefficient could not be tested for significance. However, the coefficient selected to be fixed was the one found highest by preliminary examination; the remaining, smaller, free coefficients are all highly significant. Here, z-tests were used to assess significance of the coefficients (Long, 1983a; Bollen, 1989), producing z-values or critical ratios ranging from 7.69 to 13.04. In general, all pattern coefficients are relatively high. Thus, examination of the measurement model shows the set of operational measures is appropriate for subsequent investigation of the proposed structural linkages among the constructs.

Support for the Structural Equation Model as a Whole

Analysis of the full structural model, which includes the measurement model and the proposed structural linkages, produced a chi-square value of 406.48 (d.f. 201, p=.000). This test indicates a discrepancy between the matrix of correlations based on the data and the matrix imputed by the model; however, such discrepancies are common, especially for samples of this size (Tanaka, 1993). The goodness of fit index is .916, and the index adjusted for degrees of freedom is .884, both of which statistics indicate a moderately good fit between model and data. The root mean square residual is .067. Taken together, these statistics for the structural equation model as a whole provide solid empirical support for both the conceptualization and its operationalization.

Support for the Structural Linkages

On this basis, it is appropriate to examine the results of the test of the proposed structural linkages. The total coefficient of determination for the entire set of six structural equations that explain the endogenous constructs in the model is .440. The squared multiple correlations for each of these equations are: Exercise attitudes, .016; Nutrition knowledge, .062; Exercise benefits, .562; Nutrition concerns, .340; Exercise behavior, .319; and Nutrition behavior, .533. These R2 values provide solid support for the equations that explain the four constructs that appear later in the flow of influence. In particular, the constructs proposed to explain health-oriented lifestyle behavior perform their explanatory role well. Expectedly, the two earlier endogenous constructs receive lesser explanation from their smaller number of antecedents.

Turning to the individual linkages, Table 2 presents evidence concerning the hypotheses that propose relationships between pairs of constructs. Again, z-tests were used to assess significance of the parameter estimates for the direct structural linkages (Long, 1983b; Bollen, 1989), with one-tailed tests used for all hypothesized relationships. The tests of direct links between constructs show support (p<.05) for fifteen of the 27 hypothesized relationships. The standard errors provided by LISREL were also used to perform z-tests on the total effects, and nineteen of the 27 hypothesized relationships were supported in this manner. (Further, considering the total effects for the five additional paths not explicitly proposed by the model, 23 of the 32 possible uni-directional total effect linkages between pairs of constructs emerged as significant. However, the total effect for the bi-directional, reciprocal loop between exercise behavior and nutrition behavior was not significant.) In sum, taken as a set, the individual hypotheses proposed by the conceptualization were well-supported.

Impact of the Direct Effects

The tests of the direct effects provide simple, easily interpretable evidence for judging whether the data support the proposed links between pairs of constructs. This section presents the findings for these tests of the direct links ending in each of the endogenous constructs in turn. First, exercise attitudes is positively influenced by success, such that greater success, as indicated by higher education and occupational prestige, influences persons to view the idea of exercising more favorably. Second, nutrition knowledge also increases with higher Success and with female gender, but not with marital status. Third, recognition of exercise benefits follows from more favorable exercise attitudes, but not from success and age. Fourth, nutrition concerns involving the nature of one's dietary intake is heightened by the marital status of being married and by greater recognition of exercise benefits. The empirical evidence indicates that success, gender, age, and nutrition knowledge do not affect nutrition concerns.

Fifth, greater participation in exercise behavior stems from the marital status of being single, of male ender, younger Age, more favorable exercise attitudes, and, in reciprocal fashion, nutrition behavior involving the consumption of healthy food alternatives. Contrary to the hypotheses, exercise behavior does not reflect success and perceived exercise benefits. Sixth, beneficial nutrition behavior follows from greater success, female gender, older age, and greater nutrition concerns. Persons' food habits do not reflect marital status, nutrition knowledge, or exercise behavior. Thus, the empirical support for the model is pervasive, as can be seen in the finding that each of the six endogenous constructs is the endpoint for at least one, and as many as five, significant direct linkages. Further, seven of the eight constructs preceding the two "output" behavior constructs (excepting only nutrition knowledge) affect a following construct.

Impact of the Total Effects

Structural equation analysis also allows the analyst to investigate a proposed relationship by going beyond the simple, direct link between a pair of constructs. A direct link is often supplemented by one or more indirect links that work through other, intervening constructs. The sum of the direct and indirect effects produces a total effect that gives a fuller portrayal of how one construct affects another. In fact, Bollen (1989) claims the total effect is the linkage most relevant for interpretation. Here, indirect paths augment the hypothesized direct paths to the extent that they make four additional total paths statistically significant. Further, because they follow solely indirect paths, another four total paths emerge as significant where the model does not posit direct linkages between pairs of constructs.

In the first case, supplemental indirect effects indicate that exercise benefits increases with greater success, nutrition concerns increases with both greater success and advancing age, and exercise behavior increases with greater success. These findings show that the exogenous demographic constructs, especially success, enter into more complex relationships with the endogenous psychological and behavioral constructs than is indicated by the more obvious, direct paths of influence. In fact, success has a notable indirect impact on the overall flow of influence on health-oriented lifestyle. In the second case, positive influences emerge for exercise attitudes on nutrition concerns, nutrition concerns on exercise behavior, exercise attitudes on nutrition behavior, and exercise benefits on nutrition behavior.

DISCUSSION

The Process of Influence on Consumers' Health-Oriented Lifestyle

Based on Bollen's (1989) recommendation, this discussion uses the total effects that gained empirical support as the basis for exploring the nature of the process of influence leading to a health-oriented lifestyle. To reiterate, this study was an attempt to investigate a process model of influence that focused on persons' participation in nutritional food choices and physical fitness activities. All analyses were done on individuals and any reference to segments is done via marketing implications. Marketers will choose to segment persons based on the type of food choices they make as well as either the time of day they exercise or actual exercise of their choice or the confluence of these two constructs. The purpose of this project was to study lifestyle choices that consumers make regarding a health-orientation.

Influences on Exercise Behavior

In general, the results show the importance of demographics for explaining exercise behavior; all four demographic constructs affect this element of lifestyle. Those persons who engage in exercise most heavily are younger, single males who have found greater success in life (as indicated by their higher education and occupational prestige). Exercise attitudes also affect exercise behavior; heavier exercisers have positive feelings about the practice of exercising and how it helps persons feel good, feel fit, and feel more energetic.

Both nutrition concerns and nutrition behavior affect exercise behavior. Heavier exercisers express stronger concerns about their personal nutrition practices, including their intake of fatty foods and cholesterol level. They also consume a diet of more nutritional foods, such as fresh vegetables and fruits and wheat bread, while avoiding snack foods such as potato chips. Thus, persons who exercise more heavily are more cognitively and behaviorally involved in good health in general; their involvement features both the exercise and nutrition components of a health-oriented lifestyle.

In sum, demographics provide an explanation for this component of a health-oriented lifestyle that is couched in simple terms. A fuller understanding is gained by recognizing the strong influence from supportive attitudes toward exercise and the additional contribution from nutrition-related cognitive and behavioral influences. The person most heavily engaged in exercise is more likely to be (in some combination) younger, male, single, successful, positively disposed toward exercise, concerned about nutrition, and currently following nutritional food habits.

Influences on Nutrition Behavior

Demographics also contribute importantly to the explanation of nutrition behavior, as all demographics except marital status affect persons' consumption of nutritional foods. Those who consume a more nutritional diet are older, female, and more successful in life. Nutrition concerns also influences nutritional behavior; persons who consume a more nutritional diet view nutrition as important, while being concerned about such ingredients as fat and cholesterol.

The interlocking relationship between persons' orientation toward both nutrition and exercise continues with this component of lifestyle, as both psychological exercise constructs affect nutrition behavior. Persons who have more nutritional food habits are more positively disposed toward exercising. They are also more likely to believe that exercising provides benefits that extend beyond the physiological domain to improve participants' thinking, working, and handling stress. Counter to expectations, participation in exercise does not impact nutritional food choices (although the obverse influence is supported). In sum, persons who consume more healthy food alternatives can be characterized as female, successful, older, concerned about nutrition, holding positive attitudes toward exercise, and recognizing the benefits of exercise.

Influences on Exercise Benefits

Because exercise benefits impacts a criterion construct (nutrition behavior), it is instructive to examine the influences on this construct. Demographics do not provide substantial explanation here, showing merely that more successful persons recognize the greater mental, psychological, and work-related benefits of exercising. However, persons' exercise attitudes are consistent with the benefits they recognize; the data associate a positive assessment of exercising with recognizing the advantages of participation in these fitness activities. Concisely, the findings indicate that those who recognize the benefits of regular and consistent exercise are more successful persons who hold attitudes toward exercise that are consistent with their perceptions of its benefits.

Influences on Nutrition Concerns

All of the demographics but gender influence nutrition concerns. Persons who have greater concerns about nutrition tend to be married, older, and more successful in life. In addition, both psychological exercise-related constructs affect these cognitions. Persons who are more likely to recognize benefits from exercising and to hold positive attitudes toward exercising are more concerned about nutrition. In that nutrition concerns subsequently affects exercise behavior, it emerges as a central construct in a network of interlocking influences that gives credence to the notion of a holistic health-oriented lifestyle. Concisely, consumers who are concerned about nutrition are more likely to be married, successful, and older, and to approve of exercise and believe in its benefits for participants.

Influences on Nutrition Knowledge and Exercise Attitudes

While the model proposes only four linkages from demographics to nutrition knowledge and exercise attitudes, the data support three of them. Females and successful persons are more knowledgeable about nutrition, and successful persons are also more favorably disposed toward exercise. To summarize, the three nutrition-related constructs are explained by eight significant (of course, hypothesized) direct effects, two additional hypothesized total effects, and three non-hypothesized total effects. The three exercise-related constructs are explained by seven (hypothesized) direct links, two additional hypothesized total effects, and one non-hypothesized total effect. Exercise behavior receives five significant (hypothesized) direct effects, one additional hypothesized total effect, and one non-hypothesized total effect. Nutrition behavior receives four significant (hypothesized) direct effects and two non-hypothesized total effects. In all, the data provide a very even explanation for the multiple constructs of the nutrition and exercise components of a health-oriented lifestyle.

IMPLICATIONS FOR MARKETING PRACTITIONERS

This section examines some of the many implications for marketers that issue from the empirical findings. It considers these implications in reference to the market as a whole, the characteristics of individual customers, entry points for marketing strategy, and suggested elements of strategy for a health-oriented lifestyle (Kraft & Goodell, 1993).

The Nature of the Market

The findings indicate that the market can be cautiously considered in holistic terms, given that there is considerable overlap involving the psychological and the behavioral elements of both the nutrition- and exercise-related components of lifestyle. Nonetheless, two somewhat distinct segments can be discerned, those persons who are primarily nutrition-oriented and those who are primarily exercise-oriented. Further, the findings show this overlap between the two segments is somewhat asymmetrical at the level of behavior. Persons who have an interest in nutrition are more behaviorally involved in exercise than persons who have an interest in exercise are involved in nutrition. To speculate, it may be that a core of consumers, perhaps importantly consisting of younger males, exercises regularly, yet is not particularly concerned about what it eats and drinks.

Four general alternatives for designing an effective strategy are possible. First, marketers can target a general health-oriented segment by marketing aids to health improvement and maintenance in broad terms. The findings suggest that, while this strategy would likely reach some customers in both segments, it might also fail to connect with many other consumers because it is not sufficiently specific to the entry points offered by the psychological constructs and the demographic characteristics. Second, targeting either nutrition-oriented or exercise-oriented consumers could effectively and efficiently reach persons in that particular segment, regardless of these consumers' current membership in a market segment. However, this approach would likely be ineffective with those in the other segment. Third, targeting both segments in specific terms would likely be more effective, but prohibitively inefficient. Fourth, marketers could target both segments simultaneously, using relatively few, but fairly specific elements of strategy. This dual-pronged strategy would emphasize selective aspects of both nutrition and exercise, while indicating that the two components are mutually interrelated elements of a health-oriented lifestyle. The fourth alternative is both effective and efficient to the extent that (current and potential) customers for nutrition- and exercise-related offerings constitute overlapping segments.

The findings from this research indicate these two basic segments do overlap. Thus, practitioners who seek to market nutrition, whether through "diet" programs, food lines at a worksite, behavioral therapy, or other means, should recognize they can further aid their customers by encouraging and facilitating customers' participation in regular exercise. They can communicate the message that a full health-oriented lifestyle includes not only nutritional food alternatives but also a regular exercise program. Note, however, that those who supply clothing, equipment, instruction, and facilities for exercisers may find it more difficult to expand into food offerings. The findings indicate marketers who seek to expand their market in this way will find lesser success in promoting the fitness-related benefits of eating nutritional food to exercisers. Perhaps they can emphasize the dysfunctional narrowness of a lifestyle that focuses only on exercise.

Characteristics of Individual Customers

The present findings indicate some difficulties in designing a dual-pronged strategy based on consumers' demographics. The findings portray those who are most active in exercise-related activities as successful, younger, male, and single. Yet the persons most active in nutrition-related activities are successful, older, female, and married. The only common positive influence on their health-oriented lifestyle is their greater success in life.

Of course, marketers would do well to consider to what extent the (current and potential) customers identified here want external commercial support for their lifestyle. Some persons are too independent-minded to need, for example, a wellness center or nutrition therapy (John & Miaoulis, 1992) to support their lifestyle choices. It seems the desire for outside- vs. self-help lies on a continuum that ranges from complete independence, through selective support, to complete dependence on commercial providers for promoting health and curing illness. In this sense, the more profitable targets would apparently be those customers who will not or cannot act independently. Thus, the question for marketers then becomes: which persons will be most receptive and responsive to their marketing efforts?

Marketers should note this study focuses on influences that are characterized as health-related. Yet, for some persons, the motivation for a "health-oriented" lifestyle may be minimally concerned with improving or maintaining their health. For example, persons with strong social needs may want to join with others for primarily social reasons with the benefits of exercise are less salient. Or, hypochondriacs may simply want maximum attention from, perhaps rather than relief from the healthcare system (John & Miaoulis, 1992).

Entry Points for Marketing Strategy

Marketers must identify those characteristics of consumers that influence their lifestyle, yet are accessible to marketing strategy. Such constructs in the model provide foci for efforts to influence customers' behavior, given that they have received empirical support in this study. For example, the findings indicate marketers can enter the flow of influence to motivate positive nutrition-related behavior by seeking to arouse customers' concern about nutrition, encourage their favorable attitudes toward exercise, and heighten their recognition of the benefits of exercise. Conversely, the finding that nutrition knowledge does not influence behavior suggests educating consumers would not be a productive strategy to use. Demographics, of course, cannot be influenced, but marketers should recognize them as important in devising a marketing strategy.

The finding that the flows of nutrition- and exercise-related influences on behavior overlap indicates that the constructs in both flows can be used as entry points for the suggested dual-pronged marketing strategy. For example, success exerts a positive influence on nutritional food habits and physical fitness activities. As Bloch (1984) states, the marketing implication is that better-educated persons who pursue wellness actively seek relevant information. They can better handle the details of health-related treatments and procedures, and can better understand their risks, as well. By extension, these consumers should also be more accessible to complex offerings in the marketplace. Marketing communications should follow accordingly.

As another entry point, concern for nutrition was shown to influence both nutrition- and exercise-related activities. It seems that marketers can profitably appeal to this concern with the dual-pronged strategy, perhaps drawing from what has been learned about the marketing of insurance services. This entry point seemingly provides access to various specific domains of health-related concerns; e.g., concerns involving disease prevention, proper physical functioning, sound emotional outlook, and attractiveness. As another entry point, exercise benefits (here, involving mental stability and workplace productivity) were found to influence nutrition behavior. Thus, marketers can profitably emphasize health-related benefits to their potential market, perhaps by further segmenting the market in terms of more narrowly-defined subsets of benefits.

Suggested Elements of Marketing Strategy

This sub-section suggests illustrative elements of marketing strategy. It offers somewhat speculative suggestions intended to stimulate the creative thoughts of practitioners who seek to serve this market. Given the variety of offerings that apply to this market, it is of course necessary to speak in generalities.

Product/Service Strategies. One basic strategy decision involves what range of products/services/programs is appropriate for the target market. Put otherwise, the firm must select the distinctive competencies it will develop (Stone, Warren & Stevens, 1990). If a dual-pronged strategy is used, the range of offerings and corresponding competencies must acknowledge whether the firm's customers follow a conceptually concentrated, holistic, health-oriented lifestyle (Harrell & Fors, 1985). If they do, the range of offerings may be fairly wide, although marketers can likely narrow this range to the extent they will commit to serving a clearly-defined, limited set of lifestyle activities.

The strategy may require the firm to exhibit a variety of competencies. To illustrate, the notion of experience-based management of a recreation setting suggests the value of facilitating the appropriate mix of physical, social, and managerial settings for lifestyle activities (Driver & Rosenthal, 1982). Consider marketing strategy for a health spa. Translated into this context, the concept suggests a dual-pronged strategy should address multiple dimensions of an environment created to help customers engage in their common lifestyle activities. Marketers might seek to motivate participation in exercise by a segment of more-successful females who make nutritional food choices, but who lag less-successful males in exercising. The strategy could locate an attractive health-food bar within the facility so that the women can interact socially with other successful women. This setting would provide a supportive venue for a nutritional snack and, simultaneously, the site for a vigorous workout.

Promotion Strategies. When selecting an appropriate communication strategy, marketers should certainly consider demographics, both those empirically supported here, as well as others that were not investigated. To speculate, while more-successful consumers might easily envision their success in a new workout program, management might have to convince targeted less-successful consumers they can succeed. Further, while consumers who generally rate the benefits of exercise participation highly would likely be receptive to communications involving such benefits, other persons might have to be initially informed or even constantly reminded of the importance of these benefits. Regarding the thrust of promotional messages, despite the emphasis given cognitive constructs by this study, previous studies indicate that not all health-related decisions are rational (Burns, 1992).

Promotions can reach the target market through a variety of media such as pamphlets, films, videotapes, slides, audiotapes, workbooks, and health assessment instruments. They might use such devices as sponsorship of local sporting events and sports clubs, ads in health-related publications, displays at health fairs, computer messages, interaction with live instructors, brochures, newsletters, open houses, posters, and word of mouth (Bloch, 1984; Leafgren & Elsenrath, 1986; McPartland, 1989). Their messages should use the entry points discussed above to emphasize such outcomes as body strength and stamina, mental wellness, independence, youthful functioning, and a slim and beautiful appearance (Hertzler & Grun, 1990).

Marketers should recognize that some persons will become opinion leaders for others, which suggests the value of promoting a two-step flow of information. For example, the strategy could attempt to persuade health-care professionals by using such entry points as nutrition concerns and exercise benefits, with the hope these opinion leaders will subsequently recommend the firm's offerings to their own clients in similar terms. Or, where the findings indicate being married exerts a positive influence on another construct such as nutrition concerns, the strategy could target married persons to enhance the effectiveness of a communication designed to impact these nutrition concerns.

IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

Overall, the model finds fairly strong support. Demographics play an important part in the flow of influence. The contribution of success is particularly noteworthy, and its role in the process of influence leading to a health-oriented lifestyle should be investigated further. As usual, the findings also reveal areas for improvement. Considering just the demographics that were used here, the model should be revised. The modification indices provided with LISREL indicate a significant link would connect gender to exercise attitudes if it were allowed. Going further, a different set of demographics, or even other personal characteristics, might furnish stronger explanation of the six endogenous constructs in the model than do the three demographics other than success. Future research should investigate this possibility.

Beyond demographics, one notable gap in the model that deserves further investigation is the failure of nutrition knowledge to influence any following constructs. If such knowledge does not link with behavior, devising a cognitive approach to motivating behavior, especially one involving food habits, becomes difficult. However, as usual, the issue of appropriate measurement of the construct should be considered. Perhaps pencil-and-paper measures of this knowledge lack validity, even though this means of measuring knowledge is broadly acceptable to educators. Quite likely, better educated persons score higher on any test of this kind, even when they are no more able to apply this knowledge to decision-making. The best operationalization of knowledge would measure that form of cognitive understanding that is actually put into practice when making behavioral choices. If it is appropriate to measure this form of knowledge, future research should search for the best way to measure this construct.

Finally, while exercise benefits affects two nutrition constructs, it does not impact exercise behavior. Future research can investigate why such a cognitive justification for exercise behavior is insufficient to motivate that behavior. Perhaps participants' involvement is less cognitive and more affective; that is, many exercisers may being seeking pleasure in the form of an emotional, or even a physiological, "high" (Clough, Shepherd & Maughan, 1989). In any case, the reason why the proposed link from exercise benefits to exercise behavior was not supported deserves further investigation; again, the possibility of a different operationalization should be considered.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

This study proposes a model of the process of influence on consumers' pattern of activities referred to here as their health-oriented lifestyle. The empirical test of the model provides general, but qualified, support for the model. The findings indicate that persons who consume more nutritional food are more concerned about nutrition, more strongly emphasize the benefits of exercise, hold more favorable attitudes toward exercise, and are more likely successful, female, and older. Those who exercise more heavily eat more nutritional food, evince greater concern for nutrition, possess more favorable attitudes toward exercise, and are more likely successful, single, male, and younger.

Consumers who are more concerned about nutrition emphasize more strongly the benefits of exercise, hold more favorable attitudes toward exercise, and are more likely successful, married, and older. Those who stress more strongly the benefits of exercise hold supporting attitudes toward exercise and are more successful. Persons who know more about nutrition possess more favorable attitudes toward exercise and are more likely successful and female.

These empirical findings demonstrate the interlocking nature of consumers' psychological and behavioral involvement in the nutrition- and exercise-related aspects of health. The findings thus support the basic concept of this study: (1) a health-oriented lifestyle integrates both nutrition and exercise components, and (2) those who follow this lifestyle can be usefully characterized in terms of their psychological involvement in both nutrition and exercise, and by their demographics. Therefore this study has made a significant step at trying to characterize a lifestyle that has gained considerable attention in the popular press. It is the first attempt to empirical test a process model that considers many constructs involved in a health-oriented lifestyle. It provides information useful to marketers in developing strategies aimed at specific segments of nutrition and physical fitness enthusiasts.

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Kenneth D. Bahn, James Madison University

Kent L. Granzin, University of Utah

Newell D. Wright, James Madison University

Table 1: Pattern Coefficients, z Statistics, Reliabilities for the
Measurement Model

Construct/Indicator Standardized
 Coefficient

Success Occupational Prestige .770
 Education .615

Marital Status Currently married (0=no; 1=yes) 1
Gender (0=male; 1=female) 1
Age (years) 1
Exercise Attitudes Exercise is important .752
 Being fit/in shape is important .733
 People who exercise regularly
 have more energy .716
 Feel good from exercising .702
Exercise Benefits Ability to think more clearly .732
 Increased productivity at work .729
 Ability to handle stress .727

Nutrition Knowledge: An index based on correctness
 of answers to 12 questions 1

Nutrition Concerns Watch my intake of fatty foods .801
 Concerned about cholesterol level .678
 Nutrition important in my life .659

Exercise Behavior Duration of average workout .783
 Frequency of workouts .753
 Total number of activities .531

Nutrition Behavior Intake of fresh fruit .741
 Intake of fresh vegetables .701
 Intake of wheat bread products .526
 Intake of potato chips -.459

Construct/Indicator z

Success Occupational Prestige -- (a)
 Education 8.12 (b)

Marital Status Currently married (0=no; 1=yes) -- (a)
Gender (0=male; 1=female) -- (a)
Age (years) -- (a)
Exercise Attitudes Exercise is important -- (a)
 Being fit/in shape is important 13.04 (b)
 People who exercise regularly
 have more energy 12.77 (b)
 Feel good from exercising 12.51 (b)
Exercise Benefits Ability to think more clearly -- (a)
 Increased productivity at work 12.02 (b)
 Ability to handle stress 12.00 (b)

Nutrition Knowledge: An index based on correctness
 of answers to 12 questions -- (a)

Nutrition Concerns Watch my intake of fatty foods -- (a)
 Concerned about cholesterol level 11.69 (b)
 Nutrition important in my life 11.41 (b)

Exercise Behavior Duration of average workout -- (a)
 Frequency of workouts 10.86 (b)
 Total number of activities 8.77 (b)

Nutrition Behavior Intake of fresh fruit -- (a)
 Intake of fresh vegetables 11.11 (b)
 Intake of wheat bread products 8.73 (b)
 Intake of potato chips 7.69 (b)

Construct/Indicator Indicator
 Reliability

Success Occupational Prestige .593
 Education .378

Marital Status Currently married (0=no; 1=yes) 1.000 (a)
Gender (0=male; 1=female) 1.000 (a)
Age (years) 1.000 (a)
Exercise Attitudes Exercise is important .566
 Being fit/in shape is important .537
 People who exercise regularly
 have more energy .513
 Feel good from exercising .492
Exercise Benefits Ability to think more clearly .536
 Increased productivity at work .531
 Ability to handle stress .529

Nutrition Knowledge: An index based on correctness
 of answers to 12 questions 1.000 (a)

Nutrition Concerns Watch my intake of fatty foods .651
 Concerned about cholesterol level .464
 Nutrition important in my life .438

Exercise Behavior Duration of average workout .614
 Frequency of workouts .569
 Total number of activities .283

Nutrition Behavior Intake of fresh fruit .55
 Intake of fresh vegetables .492
 Intake of wheat bread products .277
 Intake of potato chips .211

(a) Coefficient of leading indicator for each construct was
set to 1.0 to establish scale for the construct

(b) p<.001

Table 2: Magnitude and Significance of Hypothesized Structural
Relationships

Following/Leading Hypo. Parameter Standard
Constructs Sign Effect

Exercise Attitudes
 Success + [Y.sub.11] 0.125

Nutrition Knowledge
 Success + [Y.sub.21] 0.258
 Marital Status + [Y.sub.22] -0.101
 Gender + [Y.sub.23] 0.173

Exercise Benefits
 Success + [Y.sub.31] 0.066
 Age + [Y.sub.34] 0.021
 Exercise Attitudes + [[beta].sub.31] 0.737

Nutrition Concerns
 Success + [Y.sub.41] 0.128
 Marital Status + [Y.sub.42] 0.154
 Gender + [Y.sub.43] 0.076
 Age + [Y.sub.44] 0.110
 Exercise Attitudes -- -- --
 Nutrition Knowledge + [[beta].sub.42] 0.087
 Exercise Benefits + [[beta].sub.43] 0.416

Exercise Behavior
 Success + [Y.sub.61] 0.092
 Marital Status - [Y.sub.62] -0.249
 Gender - [Y.sub.63] -0.190
 Age - [Y.sub.64] 0.193
 Exercise Attitudes + [B.sub.61] 0.508
 Nutrition Knowledge --
 Exercise Benefits + [B.sub.62] -0.308
 Nutrition Concerns [B.sub.63] --
 Nutrition Behavior + 0.301

Nutrition Behavior
 Success + [Y.sub.81] 0.192
 Marital Status + [Y.sub.82] -0.006
 Gender + [Y.sub.83] 0.181
 Age + [Y.sub.84] 0.185
 Exercise Attitudes --
Nutrition Knowledge + [B.sub.82] -0.038
Exercise Benefits 4 [B.sub.8] --
Nutrition Concerns + [B.sub.86] 0.551
Nutrition Behavior + -0.120

Following/Leading Direct (Total) z Values
Constructs Effect

Exercise Attitudes
 Success .153 (a) (.153a (a)) 1.84 (1.84)

Nutrition Knowledge
 Success .420 (a) (.420 (a)) 2.97 (2.98)
 Marital Status -.101 (-.101) 1.39 (1.38)
 Gender .173 (a) (.173 (a)) 3.13 (3.15)

Exercise Benefits
 Success .079 (.189 (a)) 1.08 (1.08)
 Age .015 (.015) .41 (.41)
 Exercise Attitudes .717 (a) (.717 (a)) 10.10 (10.10)

Nutrition Concerns
 Success .167 (a) (.282 (a)) 1.43 (2.39)
 Marital Status .123 (a) (.116 (a)) 1.79 (1.68)
 Gender .061 (.073) 1.34 (1.62)
 Age .088 (.095 (a)) 1.63 (1.73)
 Exercise Attitudes --(.326 (b)) -- 6.04
 Nutrition Knowledge .070 (.070) 1.61 (1.59)
 Exercise Benefits .455 (a) (.455 (a)) 6.49 (6.50)

Exercise Behavior
 Success .117 (.280 (a)) .960 (2.37)
 Marital Status -.195 (a) (-.171 (a)) 2.81 (2.48)
 Gender -.149 (a) (-.093 (a)) 2.88 (2.07)
 Age -.151 (a) (-.091 (a)) 2.49 (1.69)
 Exercise Attitudes .528 (a) (.473 (a)) 4.30 (6.86)
 Nutrition Knowledge --0.002 -- (.150)
 Exercise Benefits -.127 (-.051) .970 (.430)
 Nutrition Concerns -- (.156 (a)) -- (2.26)
 Nutrition Behavior .318 (a) (.307 (a)) 2.36 (2.58)

Nutrition Behavior
 Success .232 (a) (.332 (a)) 2.12 (3.02)
 Marital Status -.004 (.077) .070 (1.18)
 Gender .134 (a) (.177 (a)) 3.13 (4.12)
 Age .137 (a) (.196 (a)) 2.75 (3.84)
 Exercise Attitudes -- (.112 (b)) -- (2.49)
Nutrition Knowledge -.028 (.007) .720 (.180)
Exercise Benefits (.237 (b)) -- (4.74)
Nutrition Concerns .509 (a) (.491 (a)) 6.91 (7.33)
Nutrition Behavior -.113 (-.109) 1.22 (1.27)

(a) p<.05 using one-tailed test to reflect a proposed direction
hypothesis for this direct effect

(b) p<.05 using two-tailed test to reflect no proposed
(directional) hypothesis for this total effect; all four significant
additional total effects are positive in sign