Smoothing the transition to skilled employment: school-based vocational guidance in Britain and Continental Europe.

Jarvis, Valerie

(24) Students enter LBO schools at age 12. During their first two years at an LBO school, pupils follow an academic curriculum similar to that of the higher-level MAVO, along with four periods a week of 'general technology' (woodwork, metalwork, cookery and IT). In their final two years of compulsory schooling, LBO pupils 'specialise' in a vocational area (eg, electrical engineering, construction, industrial cookery), spending roughly 60 per cent of their time on the practical and theoretical elements of their 'vocational' subjects (see: S.J. Prais and Elaine Beadle, Pre-Vocational Schooling in Europe Today, National Institute Report no. 1, 1991). The Dutch education system is currently in the process of a major reorganisation, including moves towards a comprehensive approach. The outcome of the changes in practice is still unclear. The description of the Dutch system in this article relates to 1. Introduction

Since the mid-1970s technological advances and demographic changes have obliged employment and education ministers throughout Europe to pay more attention to the employment prospects of young people leaving school. The immediate goal of the vast majority of 16-year-old school leavers in Britain--'getting a job'--stands in stark contrast to the predominant route to adult working life in other European countries, which typically involves additional education and training. This more gradual and progressive transition to the labour market on the Continent promotes a higher degree of competence, and helps shelter Continental youngsters from the vagaries and casualisation of the labour market which characterises much of the British school leaving scene.

The 'vital role' of vocational guidance in smoothing the transition from school to work has been repeatedly acknowledged in official policy documents in the UK,(1) yet there have been few attempts to compare the guidance offered in British secondary schools with the vocational preparation carried out in other countries. In the light of the recently-ordered review of careers guidance by the new Secretaries of State for Education and Employment, the object of the present article is to compare vocational guidance provision in Britain and three European countries--Germany, the Netherlands, and Switzerland(2) and to ask whether anything of significance can be learned from our European neighbours, particularly in the way they raise the career aspirations and motivation of young people of average and below-average academic attainments.

The economic success of Germany, Switzerland and the Netherlands relative to Britain is well known; and the contribution of vocational training to inter-country differences, industrial productivity and competitiveness has been well-documented by National Institute researchers.(3) The case for improved vocational training for youngsters leaving school at 16 has been strongly argued,(4) and is now firmly rooted in government policy. Nevertheless, a far larger proportion of British youngsters prefer to leave school at 16 than in most other European countries, while participation in post-compulsory education and training of British teenagers remains notably lower than elsewhere in Europe.(5) Armed with below-average academic qualifications and little desire to return to full-time education, many British youngsters drift from school into unemployment or casual work, with few promotion possibilities and little prospect of continual employment.

Undoubtedly many factors contribute to a successful school-to-work transition, and certainly none of the countries considered in this article could claim to have eliminated all the problems of school leavers seeking to enter the world of work; yet it seems--from our comparisons that Britain has rather further to go than the other countries studied here in preparing its school-leavers for a world in which unskilled work is no longer abundantly available and in which further education and training are increasingly a prerequisite to employment.

Appeals have long been made by employers' groups for a more coherent preparation at school for the world of work.(6) Employers interviewed in all four countries in the course of this research spoke of the increased degree of flexibility required of workers in response to technical advances and ever-growing international competition in product markets. These pressures necessitate ever-higher skills and standards from new intakes of school leavers; but for British employers, the attainments of school leavers seem unacceptably low, particularly in mathematics and practical subjects.(7) British employers (training officers from large firms) and teachers who accompanied us on our visits abroad returned convinced of the better preparation of Continental school leavers for skilled training--a consequence, in part, of the clearer structure--and greater abundance--of youth training opportunities abroad.(8) In the absence of clear career and training paths in the British youth labour market, and the reduction in opportunities as a consequence of the recent recession, it is hardly surprising that careers teachers here find it difficult to offer clear and concise advice about post-school options suitable for those hoping to leave school at 16. Despite the notable increases in 'staying on' rates of recent years, little will be achieved if youngsters are not suitably advised as to which courses to follow for entry to their chosen fields.

This study is based on classroom observations and interviews with teachers in some two dozen secondary schools in Germany, Switzerland and the Netherlands (10, 10 and 4, respectively) visited in 1992 and 1993, together with a dozen schools in Britain.(9) In assessing the most important differences in guidance provision on the Continent and in Britain, we were helped on our visits abroad by experienced British teachers and schools inspectors. Our visits concentrated primarily on guidance provision for pupils in their final two years of compulsory schooling (ie, aged 14-16). The British schools visited were generally comprehensives with an intake covering the entire attainment range; those visited on the Continent reflect the differentiated (selective) education systems still prevalent in those countries. In Holland our visits focused on schools catering for roughly the lowest third of the academic attainment range, the junior vocational schools (LBO).(10) In Germany, our visits were principally concentrated in Hauptschulen--catering for roughly the least academic 40 per cent of each cohort--mainly in the two southern Lander of Baden-Wurttemberg (main town: Stuttgart) and Bavaria (main town: Munich). In the German-speaking region of Switzerland, where three main types of school are usually available to secondary school pupils, visits were concentrated in Realschulen (not to be confused with the middle-ability stream of schools of that name in Germany), again covering roughly the lowest third of the attainment range, and two AVO comprehensive schools.

The article is organised as follows: Section 2 provides a stylised view of careers education and guidance in schools in the three Continental countries visited. We present separately the somewhat different systems of Germany and Switzerland on the one hand, and the Netherlands on the other. Sections 3 and 4 describe the main features of vocational guidance provision in schools in Britain, and consider the the main points of contrast between British and Continental practice. Section 5 advances a number of practical suggestions, based on these comparisons, for improving vocational guidance in UK schools.

2. Vocational guidance in Europe: practice and emphasis

School-based vocational guidance can be decomposed into six main elements: the method of careers education provision (organisation of the programme, qualifications of teachers, etc); the focus of guidance programmes (specific occupations, specific employers); the use of books and questionnaires; the importance attached to individual guidance interviews; parental involvement; and the role of work experience. All six components are nominally present in all four countries involved in this investigation, yet--as we will see--to very varying degrees. Much of the distinctive nature of British guidance provision is missed unless assessed on the basis of actual classroom practice.(11) In the present study, vocational guidance was observed in all four countries by the same National Institute team with help from groups of experienced British teachers, senior inspectors of schools, and industrial training officers. We focus throughout on provision aimed at those seeking to leave school immediately on completion of compulsory education.

While there are certain differences in approach to vocational guidance in all the countries compared in this study, several features of the 'Continental' approach are sufficiently common and important to distinguish mainland Europe from the variety of guidance provision in the UK. Since vocational guidance is particularly important for those most likely to leave school at the earliest legal opportunity, the available resources in Continental Europe are heavily concentrated on them.(12) In the types of schools visited in each of these countries, vocational guidance is interpreted by teachers as a way of preparing young people for entry to the labour market (not for further full-time education or periods of inactivity). Continental teachers guide young people towards their post-school choices by systematically eliminating those occupations which do not fit well with individual pupils' aptitudes and interests. Beginning work without first undergoing additional vocational training is discouraged--even in those countries without a statutory requirement for school leavers to train beyond the official school leaving age. Encouraging youngsters at an early age to focus on a specific occupation (rather than a broad group) is an essential part of career guidance on the Continent, since counsellors well understand the ease with which employers dismiss applications from young people with below-average schooling attainments unless there is evidence of a compensatory 'burning enthusiasm' for a particular occupation. While Continental guidance practitioners accept the principle of 'horizon-widening' as an important one, for them making pupils aware of the full range of options is only part of the process;(13) 'leaving the options open' may be a reasonable strategy for those with more time to make up their minds (ie, those staying on), but is of dubious benefit for youngsters imminently leaving the safety net of the education system.

To look at the process in more detail, we need to distinguish the German and Swiss approach to vocational guidance predicated on the notion that the vast majority of school leavers will enter the world of work via apprenticeships; and the less formal approach to guidance in Holland, where much of the post-16 education and training takes place at full-time colleges, and where part-time training is less widely taken up by school leavers.

Vocational guidance in Germany and Switzerland

Careers guidance begins about a year earlier in Germany and Switzerland than in the UK, at around age 13. While the exact curriculum differs between the individual Lander in Germany, careers guidance usually forms an integral part of the broad-based and practically-oriented work-instruction programme, Arbeitslehre.(14) The programme includes introductions to the content of individual occupations in separately-timetabled 'theoretical' classes, practical work in school workshops, industrial visits and work experience. Vocational guidance in Switzerland also begins at age 13--in the second year of secondary schooling; provision is similar to the German approach, although there is no formally-specified guidance curriculum in Switzerland.

Both the Swiss and German systems, in the types of school visited, rely heavily on the 'class teacher'--a generalist form-tutor, who stays with a class of pupils as they progress through the school and teaches them for between a half and two-thirds of their timetabled lessons. With substantial knowledge of pupils' interests and performance in a broad range of subjects, the class teacher is well-placed to play an active and important role in vocational guidance; he is much closer to acting in loco parentis than any counterpart in a UK school. The 'streamed' organisation of classes in Germany and Switzerland enables whole-class teaching of a targeted curriculum which deals in detail with entry routes to that range of occupations which is particularly relevant for those seeking to leave school at the end of compulsory schooling.

The first few vocational guidance lessons in Germany and Switzerland encourage youngsters to consider their particular interests, strengths and weaknesses, in an effort to focus their minds on the types of occupations which fit well with their individual characteristics and aspirations. Teachers hold class discussions of pupils' interests and hobbies in an effort to highlight the particular activities young people enjoy. Thereafter the teacher leads pupils through an approved textbook or standard information pack,(15) which forms the basis of a carefully-structured and systematic programme designed to inform youngsters of the range of occupations available at various levels of qualification, and, in particular, of the prospects open to 16-year-old school leavers. British teachers observing the texts used during the Institute's visits to Germany and Switzerland felt that substantially more ground could be covered in British vocational guidance classes by the adoption of similar systematic material.(16)

With the aid of their 'textbooks', Continental pupils attempt to match their own interests to the particular characteristics and requirements of various occupations.(17) In Switzerland, 2-3 days work experience in each of several occupations (Schnupperlehre) at age 13 is used to help pupils get a clearer idea of the type of environment they can expect in different sectors, and serves as an aid to their final choice.

'Unrealistic' aspirations--Traumberufe (literally: dream occupations--for instance, actress or footballer and, in relation to those with low academic achievements, architect, lawyer or vet)--are as popular abroad as in Britain, but are diplomatically discouraged; youngsters are encouraged to 'find a trade' more suited to their talents and attainments as 'something to fall back on' just in case. Teachers stress the importance of availability and regularity of work, and point to related occupations with a view to helping pupils to settle on something more realistic.

By age 14 the great majority of German Hauptschule and Swiss Realschule pupils have been convinced of the benefits of taking an apprenticeship and have fixed on a finite range of occupations which correspond to their individual interests and talents. The next stage is to narrow down their choices to one or two specific occupations and find a suitable traineeship. In deciding between individual occupations, pupils are encouraged to consider not simply the working conditions of a particular trade, but equally the opportunities for advancement, length of apprenticeship, local availability and acceptance requirements (in particular the personal and scholastic qualifications required) for training in the occupations under consideration. The importance of good marks on school leaving certificates, particularly in vocationally relevant subjects (eg, mathematics), as prerequisites for a good choice among possible occupations is repeatedly emphasised during the course of Swiss and German careers guidance programmes; youngsters realise that they will not find a place in their preferred option without some effort in the relevant subjects at school.(18)

During their penultimate year at school,(19) German Haupschule and Swiss Realschule pupils spend two separate (maybe as many as three(20)) weeks on work experience (Betriebspraktikum) at local companies with a history of training. Pupils are encouraged to choose their work experience carefully, so as both to test their prospective choice of occupation and to consider the type of environment in which they would prefer to train--for example, in a smaller Handwerk-workshop, or one of the larger industrial concerns. Employers often use this time to assess the suitability of youngsters for particular apprenticeships, and would-be apprentices hope to make a good impression.

Individual guidance in both countries is provided by specialist Careers Officers (Berufsberater) based at the local careers centre with no formal ties with the education system.(21) Early in their final year of schooling, the Berufsberater visits each class of pupils for a 'class talk'; the aim of the talk is to introduce pupils to the work of the local careers centre, and to encourage pupils to consult the Careers Advisor and additional documentation at the Centre. Pupils are encouraged to request an individual interview with the Berufsberater, and many do. Careers Advisors provide youngsters with information and contacts (names and addresses of local employers who have notified them of training vacancies) and may arrange to meet imminent leavers several times a term until the youngster finds a place. Parents are invited to all such meetings as their advice, agreement and encouragement is seen as vital to the successful completion of the rigorous (usually three-year) apprenticeship courses. While it is beyond the remit of this article to discuss in detail the role of careers guidance agencies based outside schools,(22) it is worth noting that, in many respects, Berufsberater in Germany and Switzerland face an easier and more clearly-defined task than their British counterparts, precisely because of the narrower range of occupations on which they must concentrate for individual young people as a result of a more systematic preparation in schools.(23)

Much of the smoother transition from school to work in Germany and Switzerland stems from the clearer structure of post-compulsory training, and the widespread acceptance of national vocational qualifications, on the Continent which enables teachers there to encourage young people to focus their minds on what they hope to do much earlier than in Britain, and to raise their ambitions by emphasising the benefits of training. Spurred on by clear information as to what is required in the way of academic qualifications for the apprenticeships of their choice, youngsters can either study harder at school to ensure they meet the minimum entry requirements or select a less demanding alternative.

The Dutch model

As a consequence of earlier specialisation of pupils in the Netherlands,(24)--in particular, the emphasis on specific vocational education in the last two years of LBO schooling,--careers guidance takes place rather earlier for LBO pupils than in the other countries studied in this article, and receives rather less emphasis in the final years of schooling.(25) Although there is no legal requirement for schools in the Netherlands to set aside specific periods for vocational guidance, in practice most LBO schools timetable discrete classes, at least during the second year (at age 13, before vocational subjects are chosen). In later years, the system relies heavily on the knowledge and expertise of the specialist teachers of practical subjects, many of whom teach only part time (and work part-time in industry) and take the role of 'mentor'.(26)

During the first term of their second year (at age 13), a typical LBO class spends around an hour a week working through one of the nationally-approved textbooks under the guidance of the school careers teacher, the (school) dekaan.(27) In addition to these timetabled classes, pupils are encouraged to sample specific occupational areas by spending a number of 'stages' (work-experience days often organised along the lines of Swiss Schnupperlehre) with local firms. As with their longer bouts of work experience taken later on in their school career, pupils frequently take along 'logbooks' to guide them as to what should be covered and where they should pay attention during their stages.(28)

Early in the Spring term of their second year, pupils and their parents are invited to an 'open meeting' to ensure that parents understand the importance and implications of their child's intentions and choices at this stage; attendance is generally good, with around 80 per cent of pupils represented. Teachers of specialist practical subjects are on hand to answer questions about employment conditions and prospects in their trade. Pupils still undecided about their vocational specialisation by the end of term (around 30 per cent) are sought out for individual counselling (one-to-one interviews) by the dekaan. Parents are again invited to such interviews (the great majority attend), and are explicitly consulted about their aspirations for their child. Practical teachers are approached to provide additional information about their trades and the youngsters probable aptitude for it, and week-long stages can be arranged. The one or two pupils still undecided as to which vocational option to select at the end of their year-long guidance programme undergo a series of diagnostic (including psychometric) tests carried out by a registered psychologist (not self-administered as in Britain).

Provided there are no academic difficulties, Dutch pupils in their third and fourth (final) years at LBO schools receive little formal vocational guidance.(29) Instead, the specialist (practical) teacher acts as both pastoral 'mentor' and guidance teacher to the pupils in his classes, and plays an important role in focusing pupils' minds on industrial opportunities and the standards required of them.(30) Much of the information on where to apply for a post will be supplied by these 'mentors', whose testimonials are generally well received by local employers.

During their final two years, pupils spend several weeks with local employers, working alongside existing employees. The first--usually week-long--period of work-experience helps pupils to see more clearly the types of work and training they can expect to get on leaving the LBO.(31) Pupils are guided by their logbooks as to particular areas they should try to consider, and in which they can note the variety of tasks/jobs that they may be expected to work on. Teachers contrast the lack of promotion prospects and wage-growth in unskilled jobs with the additional pay, job satisfaction and employment-stability of skilled work. At a further 'open meeting' (held early in the second term of the third--penultimate--year), parents are warned against allowing (!) their children to leave school for 'dead-end' jobs.

An important feature of the school-to-work transition in Holland is the nationally-funded careers advisor and mediator, known as the (jeugd) consulent (literally, youth advisor).(32) By means of class-talks and individual interviews, the consulent reinforces teachers' advice on the importance of gaining good marks in the school leaving certificate, and of pursuing further education and training after leaving the LBO. There is a powerful financial incentive on the consulent to ensure that as many youngsters as want them receive a firm offer of a training-place after leaving school, in that part of his pay is directly dependent on the number of pupils he places; consequently, he takes a close interest in ensuring that youngsters leave school with realistic and attainable expectations as to their labour market options, and contacts local employers for news of vacancies. School leavers without offers by May will be called in for individual interviews, and recalled early in September if they are still without a place.

All the Dutch pupils aged 14-16 we spoke to had a clear idea of where they might apply for work and traineeships after leaving school, and seemed well aware of the demands industry would make on them. Dutch teachers had to intervene at these ages only to deal with specific and exceptional problems in an ad hoc fashion.(33) Limited local opportunities may lead some youngsters to follow traineeships which are not their first choice or for which they are not ideally suited, but Continental practitioners argue that there are many important general skills and disciplines learned in initial training schemes which young people miss out on if left unemployed.

3. Vocational guidance in Britain

In many formal and organisational respects, the institutions offering vocational guidance in the UK are similar to those available to Continental youngsters; but a number of important differences remain. Britain is the only European country which officially requires vocational guidance throughout the period of compulsory schooling (though, in practice, little is delivered prior to the fourth year of secondary schooling, ie, from age 14).(34) But the effectiveness of our system in smoothing the transition from school to working life has been heavily questioned in recent years.(35)

A notable feature of careers education in Britain is the variability of provision--often even within the same Local Education Authority (LEA). Only around one-fifth of British schools offer careers guidance in separately-timetabled lessons for 4th- and 5th-form pupils. More commonly, vocational guidance forms part of a wider programme of Personal and Social Education (PSE, adopted by around 43 per cent of schools) or is delivered principally through the school's pastoral/tutorial programmes (a further 18 per cent). Although pupils may still receive discrete lessons (or blocks of lessons) devoted to careers in PSE programmes, given the eclectic nature of topics to be covered--with careers 'lessons' often sandwiched between discussions ranging from religion to alcohol and drug abuse--it is unsurprising that careers guidance is hardly treated in the same depth, or the same systematic manner, as on the Continent. The latest (officially-approved) approach is for careers guidance to be delivered as an integral or implicit part of all ten statutory subjects of the National Curriculum--the so-called 'cross-curriculum' approach.(36) Despite its fairly recent introduction, a sizeable minority (18 per cent) of schools have already adopted the cross-curriculum approach, whereby vocational guidance tends no longer to be taught by a careers specialist, but by regular subject teachers and form-tutors (already under pressure to meet the new and changing demands of the National Curriculum in their own subjects), regardless of their interest in--or suitability for--advising youngsters wishing to leave school at the earliest opportunity.

In what follows, we summarise our observations of careers guidance in the UK. For the sake of simplicity, we distinguish here only between the older-type, separately-timetabled guidance lessons (including those provided as separately-blocked and -timetabled classes within PSE programmes); and the newer 'integrated-type' guidance programmes, where careers education is no longer delivered in discretely-timetabled classes, but rather via other subjects or as part of an integrated PSE programme delivered during the 20-30 minute pastoral ('registration') period by form-tutors or by other non-specialists in careers.

Separately timetabled careers guidance lessons

Careers guidance as separately timetabled lessons--whether as a discrete course or a distinct part of an overall PSE programme--frequently begins only in the final two years of compulsory education,(37) and often consists of just one lesson per week for only one term in each of these years (ie, less than 30 hours over two years), plus a week or two of work experience. Pupils are frequently organised in mixed-ability groups, and may alternate each term with other similar groups (rotating through careers, health, and social education). Guidance classes are delivered by a designated careers teacher--often a history or geography graduate--whose first-hand knowledge of employment outside the education system may be limited to his experiences of summer work during university vacations. Few careers teachers have received any formal training in careers guidance, and many feel uncomfortable and unconfident about advising pupils on occupations of which they have little knowledge or interest.(38) The lack of training in careers guidance and of industrial exposure of teachers are certainly problematic; managers in industry complain that careers teachers do not understand industrial requirements, or seek actively to discourage young people from opting for careers in industry.(39) These factors, together with the predilection of many schools to offer vocational guidance in mixed-ability classes, significantly reduce much of the potential benefit of careers lessons--particularly for those who wish to leave at 16 and need it most. Few of those interviewed (even mid-way through their final year of compulsory schooling in Britain) had any focused plans about the major choices they faced at 16--other than putting off that decision by staying on into the Sixth Form.(40)

It is not uncommon for pupils even in separately timetabled classes to spend several of their dozen or so lessons a year completing a number of self-assessed ('psychometric') questionnaires. A commonly-used questionnaire at the time of our visits was the Occupational Interests Explorer, developed by the Careers Research and Advisory Centre (CRAC).(41) Such tests are intended to 'indicate and clarify the direction of individual pupils' vocational interests'; but much of it seems unrealistic. Pupils are asked to consider how they might like to, for example, 'act serious or comedy works on radio or on television', 'be responsible for wildlife in a safari park', or 'build an airstrip in a jungle or forest clearing'. All but the very brightest pupils seen using these tests seemed seriously discouraged by the prospect of several pages of written questionnaires, and it is easy to comprehend the observed frustration of less motivated pupils and those with reading difficulties. Few of the questions seemed specifically oriented towards potential 16-year-old school leavers (indeed, half effectively required graduate status for entry); and we wondered what conception 15-year-olds who had so far spent most of their lives at school might have of what many of these activities--'developing drugs to combat serious diseases', or 'building and installing mining or quarrying equipment'--would actually entail. Little attention is paid to the locality or availability of the different kinds of work in the questionnaires, nor to the employment stability which is so heavily emphasised by Continental guidance teachers. Although it was never the intention of the architects of these tests that they should form the basis of careers lessons, in practice much of the time devoted to careers guidance in British schools is spent in this way. Successful use of the questionnaire approach hinges on the careful interpretation of the suggestions, and meaningful discussion of the proposed alternatives, with the careers teacher or advisor; yet with several classes of 30 pupils each year, careers teachers concede that for many pupils, the back-up essential for the effective use of these diagnostic tools is impossible to provide for most pupils.

Having narrowed down the number of occupational areas of interest, however roughly, pupils spend much of the rest of their careers-lesson time 'researching' the areas picked out as suitable occupations. Careers Libraries generally hold a range of good quality pamphlets and booklets which pupils can consult.(42) Interactive computer programmes (JIIG-CAL, MICRODOORS, KUDOS, etc) and CD-ROM or videos are also often available; but pupils often find the continual use of such tools monotonous and unhelpful, and teachers concede they have little time to provide the individual counselling necessary to use the programmes effectively. While Continental pupils also use pamphlets and interactive video equipment, they do so at a rather later stage in the decision-making process--after systematic careers textbooks have been studied in detail and the salient features of a broad range of occupational areas have been identified;(43) the use of brochures is limited to choosing between specific training options (eg, fitter or miller; general hotel assistant or hotel administrator; retail assistant or specialist salesperson, etc).

Integrated careers advice

In the majority of schools these days, careers education forms part of a wider, 'integrated' programme of Personal and Social Education (PSE).(44) The intention is to offer a more 'holistic' approach to life skills and knowledge. Topics covered include 'living on your own', 'marriage', 'Aids', 'crime and punishment' and 'religion'. Certainly, it is hard to justify the exclusion of any of these issues for those on the threshold of adulthood; equally, it is not difficult to understand how, given the importance of each of these topics for adolescents generally, careers guidance can easily take a back seat to other, less individualised discussions. Even when time is set aside for 'careers' topics, the orientation of the lessons is often very different to that of German, Swiss and Dutch careers lessons. British pupils are exposed to more information about the broader aspects of the work environment (the implications of the international division of labour, the Single European Market, etc), but very little about the distinctions between individual occupations, or the entry routes to them.

Partly in response to the heavy load imposed by the National Curriculum,(45) careers guidance in many schools has been further reorganised to the point where it is delivered during tutorial periods or through other lessons as one of five 'non-statutory cross-curricular themes' by those who are not specialists in careers guidance. While this 'whole school approach' to careers guidance has been largely welcomed by the guidance establishment, others have noted with regret the additional burdens placed on careers teachers (now often re-named careers coordinators) as a result of moves towards the cross-curricular philosophy; the additional administrative work involved in developing and coordinating programmes (allocating areas of responsibility, identifying curriculum locations and developing links with other cross-curricular themes, etc) appears to have resulted in an 'overconcentration on paper generation at the expense of formal teaching and a clear emphasis on planning post-school choices.'(46) Pupils are, once again, left largely to 'discover' for themselves what post-school options are open to them, with little formal structure ensuring that all pupils are introduced to a (suitable) range of occupations. While many a tutorial period is frequently devoted to pupils' writing up Individual Action Plans or their own Records of Achievement,(47) potentially useful detail as to how to select and then find a suitable post-school position is touched on only superficially in the most integrated PSE courses.

For many British youngsters planning to leave school at the earliest opportunity, the clearest idea of what the world of work entails is provided in the final year of compulsory schooling; it consists of an optional 20-30 minute interview (usually alone(48) and increasingly at the pupil's request(49)) with the LEA Careers Officer, and a week or two of 'work experience'. The earliest legal opportunity for British pupils to participate in work experience is in the summer of their 4th (penultimate) year of secondary schooling, when they are aged 15-plus. Pupils spend a week or two with a single employer--arranging separate placements with two different employers is generally considered 'logistically impossible' by careers teachers and coordinators already constrained to find placements for an entire cohort of pupils of all attainment levels in one go--regardless of the imminence of pupils' school leaving plans. Employers we spoke to, with experience in offering placements, complained of few advantages to compensate for the disruptions such brief encounters inevitably cause. Few of the pupils they had taken for work-experience had come with any firm intentions of later entering their industries and, when jobs were advertised by placement-giving firms, beneficiaries seldom applied.

Work experience in Continental countries often begins a year (or more) earlier in youngsters' school careers, and may last as long as three weeks. The longer duration experienced by Continental youngsters helps develop a clearer picture of the content and variety of work involved in a particular occupation; that they are encouraged to choose their work-experience placements with different employers helps further in deciding on the environment in which they would like to train. Most British pupils, by contrast, are not expected to choose their work experience placements linked to future career objectives;(50) the aim is rather to give young people an introduction to '[the way of] life outside school'--a sort of work-related experience.(51) Pupils are given little in the way of guidance as to what they should try to absorb from the experience,(52) many return feeling they have learnt little from the experience, others simply do not attend. During this research, we met pupils undoubtedly capable of achieving their university goals having spent their placements on supermarket checkouts and in bakeries. A poignant example of the widespread disaffection with rushed and underplanned placements was amply illustrated by a fifth-form boy we met, who had fixed on a career in electrical installation--an ambition aroused by his Saturday job; when told by the school that he was to spend his two-week placement as a 'trainee chef', he got his mother to report him sick, and spent the next ten days helping his 'boss' to install cable TV!

Despite their spell of work experience, when it comes to their interview with the Careers Officer, the majority of pupils are still largely undecided as to what type of work they are best suited to, and there is little time for more than the most basic of information, and too little time to discuss more precise individual requirements.(53) Parents are generally not invited; and some schools prohibit parents from attending. Increasingly, the time with the Careers Officer is used to 'finalise' so-called Action Plans--documents in which pupils' future plans are conveniently 'settled', but for which they have received little in the way of detailed preparation, nor any serious evaluation of the alternatives relevant to them. While the work of Careers Officers in such brief interviews has long been criticised as inadequate,(54) it has been suggested--not least by a past President of the Institute of Careers Officers--that their task would be made both easier and more effective if initial contacts with pupils could be made earlier in the school curriculum careers (say, in the 4th year), and following a more rigorous and systematic preparation of pupils prior to their 'careers interview'.(55) Both suggestions would be closer to Continental practice.

4. How Britain differs

We are now in a position to set out the main features which distinguish British from Continental practice in careers guidance at school. While the variety of provision in the UK--and among the individual Continental countries studied here--makes generalisation difficult, five important differences stand out: (1) the age at which vocational guidance begins, and the focus of careers guidance in Britain and on the Continent; (2) the classroom organisation of careers guidance; (3) the role of the pastoral tutor, or class teacher; (4) the role and nature of work experience; and (5) the involvement of parents.

Age and focus

Careers guidance begins earlier on the Continent than in Britain, and seeks to prepare youngsters for the transition specifically to the world of work--rather than to further education. Because of the 'streamed' nature of Continental teaching groups, teachers there are able to concentrate on a more limited range of occupations, and encourage youngsters to consider the types of activity which best fit their own talents and interests and educational attainments. The importance of additional vocational education and training is emphasised throughout for youngsters of average and below-average attainments, so that by the beginning of the final year of compulsory education (age 15), most Continental pupils (in Hauptschulen, or their equivalent) are no longer in any doubt as to what they will do next; their energy at this stage will be channelled into deciding where to train and to finding an employer who will take them on.

Undoubtedly, the lack of a clear structure to the youth labour market in Britain deters many careers advisors here from trying to convince youngsters on the verge of leaving school of the benefits of training; yet more could be done to ensure that young people determined to leave at 16 have a clearer idea of the types of employment open to them.

The lack of focus on careers guidance in Britain, and the lack of occupationally-specific information in particular, in the now-widespread 'Personal and Social Education' (PSE) courses, leaves many British youngsters at a distinct and uneasy disadvantage in comparison to their Continental peers. The lack of time available for detailed discussion of the content of different types of work and part-time training opportunities open to those with below-average schooling attainments in the typical mixed-ability classes in Britain probably discourages many youngsters from aiming higher, and leads to many British teenagers leaving school at 16 with little idea of the personal qualities or academic qualifications required for success in the occupations which interest them. A poignant example was provided by a boy we interviewed at the end of his fourth year (age 15) who 'wanted' to become a vet. That he had not yet been advised as to what was required was amply illustrated by his inkling that training for veterinary surgery might require attendance of a college (not university) course; had he been correct even on the route to veterinary work, his hopes of attaining his goal had been largely precluded by his failure to opt for 'double science' in the previous year.(56)

Classroom organisation

Continental pupils learn about the content and requirements of particular occupations by means of a clear, structured and systematic programme of vocational guidance, which is accorded its own specific slot on the timetable. In all three Continental countries, careers education is taught by teachers who know the pupils well. The Continental teacher frequently benefits from a clear (nationally- or federally-approved) syllabus in vocational guidance, and an approved textbook on vocational guidance which forms the basis of the programme and ensures that important aspects are not missed out. Pupils are given clear instructions throughout about where to go for further information.

A major hindrance to adopting the 'directed' approach preferred on the Continent in Britain is undoubtedly the mixed-ability setting within which vocational guidance typically takes place; such classes effectively preclude the promotion of differentiated information, since teachers find the task of limiting the (sometimes wildly over-optimistic) aspirations of pupils of differing abilities within a single class distasteful and divisive. Within such an environment, detailed study of the content of individual occupations and training positions suitable for 16-year-olds is irrelevant for a large section of the class; self-teaching documentation is then largely a consequence of the classroom organisation, but is of significantly less help to those potential school leavers with an urgent need for information relevant to their needs. Added to this the somewhat 'vested interest' (in the form of additional capitation) of many schools to encourage as many youngsters as possible to stay on for Sixth Form studies,(57) it is not difficult to understand how many British youngsters can leave school, not simply without any formal arrangement for what they will do next, but without even a clear idea of what they could do.

Role of the pastoral tutor

The greater homogeneity of attainments among pupils in the Continental class is not the only respect in which the Continental teacher is able to discharge his vocational guidance responsibilities in a more straightforward way than his British counterpart. The German Haupschule teacher (or equivalent in other countries) has frequently been extensively trained in vocational guidance (in the types of occupations realistically open to pupils seeking to leave school at age 16, the content and structure of those jobs, etc(58)) and, as their regular class teacher, knows the pupils he is advising in a more thorough way. British teachers, by contrast, face an unenviable task, in seeking to advise pupils with whom they often have very little daily contact, and with little idea of the particular strengths and weaknesses of individual pupils. Privately, many tutors confide that much of the (excessive) reliance on videos, computer packages and questionnaires for careers education in the UK, stems from their lack of knowledge as to what should be taught, or how. Within the British comprehensive framework, where pupils may be taught by up to a dozen separate subject teachers, specialist careers teachers are an essential element.

Role and nature of work experience

Work experience for Continental pupils is more directly relevant to immediate post-16 choices than is the case in Britain. European pupils frequently spend 2-3 weeks in a graded series of work experience placements in the penultimate and last years of compulsory schooling. Initial visits are short, intended to help choose an occupational area suitable for that individual; later visits become gradually more specific, to help choose the specific occupation and the type of company in which to train. In Britain, spells of work experience often come too late to be helpful in the pupils' choice of subjects, and pupils are seldom encouraged to pick their work experience with a view to 'testing' a particular type of work. Pupils receive little guidance on what they should try to cover during work experience, and careers teachers find it difficult to insist on a structure for work experience, given the scarcity of placements employers are willing to offer.

Involvement of parents

The involvement of parents at all stages of the guidance process seems to play a more important role in getting young people to think carefully about the next stage on the Continent. In some countries (eg, Germany and Switzerland), parents are even party to signing training (including, apprenticeship) agreements. In Britain, by contrast, vocational guidance counsellors are often 'wary of the power of parental influence and sceptical about whether it is always exerted in the young peoples' best interests.'(59) Parents are left feeling inadequately informed and are often deliberately discouraged--or even excluded--from attending guidance sessions.(60)

In some cases, and for a variety of reasons, parents are unable or unwilling to participate in their child's vocational decisions. The class teacher in Germany and Switzerland, or the child's 'mentor' in the Netherlands, is well placed to represent and guide the pupil in such circumstances, and sees it as his responsibility to the child. The lack of sustained contact with the pupil by pastoral tutors in Britain seriously undermines their ability to guide their pupils as effectively in the decision-making process.

5. Policy suggestions

Many of the factors which contribute to a smooth transition from school to working life lie outside the bounds of this article; but from what is known of the way vocational education and guidance at school is organised on the Continent, it seems from the above comparisons that a number of relatively simple measures might be taken--without incurring great extra costs--which could substantially improve careers education in British schools, particularly for young people wishing to leave at 16. The following are the main suggestions to emerge from our comparisons with the Continent. Some of these are already in place in some schools in Britain; to some extent, our suggestions aim simply to encourage a wider spread--and greater consistency--of 'best practice'.

-- The reinstatement of discrete timetabled classes in vocational guidance

Effective vocational guidance deserves and requires a dedicated slot on the school timetable. The delivery of vocational guidance within a cross-curricular framework--as recommended by the National Curriculum Council in 1990--seriously undermines systematic study of specific occupations (not least because of the vast range of information requirements which need to be covered for the range of abilities typically encountered in the standard tutorial group in Britain). Discrete classes of vocational guidance should be reinstated from Year 9 (13-year-olds)--perhaps for around one hour per fortnight--in order that pupils may better select their 'optional subjects' for Years 10-11 with their career interests in mind. The latest revisions to the National Curriculum leave around one-third of the timetable for optional subjects for 14-16-year-olds (Key Stage 4); pupils need to be properly informed of the areas of specialisation required for the various occupational groups before such options are chosen (ie, in the third form), and of the subjects and grades required for entry to college courses.

-- Greater targetting of relevant information

For Year 9 pupils (age 13), general introductions to, say, the ten major occupational groups (and the subjects required to enter them) seem appropriate. Following the choice of optional subjects (ie, from Year 10 on), it should be possible to target vocational guidance more effectively to those who need it most--namely, potential 16-year-old school leavers and pupils still undecided about staying on at school after that age. Pupils intending to stay on at school after 16 could be permitted to opt out of vocational guidance classes in Years 10 and 11 if they wish to use the time for further study (eg, for a further subject at GCSE). Other pupils (including those still undecided about whether to stay on) will require intensive guidance in Year 10 regarding their post-16 options; pupils planning to leave school at 16 could study individual occupations in greater detail, combined with half-day visits to places of employment, in a detailed guidance programme taking up, on average, one hour a week throughout Years 10 and 11.

-- A detailed syllabus and list of textbooks

A distinctive characteristic of careers education in Britain is its extreme variability. Careers teachers and coordinators themselves need clearer guidance as to what should be covered in careers lessons. The NCC's current Curriculum Guidance 6 is inadequate in failing to suggest how detailed investigation of the content of various occupations could be undertaken. Part of the success of the Continental system of vocational guidance can be attributed to the widespread reliance on well-prepared textbooks. Self-completed and self-evaluated questionnaires (of the type used extensively in vocational guidance classes in Britain) are frequently neither sufficiently detailed nor realistic to help young people focus on the range of occupations open to them at 16. There could be great benefit from detailed evaluation of Continental teaching material with a view to contributing to a guidance syllabus for the UK.

-- Greater emphasis on vocational guidance in teacher training

The heavy reliance on specialist-subject teachers in secondary schools in Britain means that pupils often receive careers education from teachers whose knowledge of the local labour market and of individual pupils' overall academic performance and vocational aspirations is less than adequate. Within the comprehensive system, more specialist careers teachers (with a specific training in vocational guidance) are therefore essential if guidance is to be effectively provided. The inclusion of careers guidance as a compulsory element in, say, half of all post-graduate teacher-training places nationally would help to increase the numbers of teachers qualified to take up this vital role, while ensuring no compulsion on those seeking to train as teachers to qualify as a careers specialist.

-- Encourage those with industrial experience to become careers guidance specialists

It will take many years to build up a stock of qualified specialists in schools sufficiently au fait with the rapid and continual changes to the structure of post-secondary education and training in Britain to be able to advise young people effectively on their best course of action at age 16. In the meantime, there could be much to be gained from encouraging those teachers with extended labour-market experience outside the educational world to take up guidance roles--perhaps through accelerated access to training schemes and counselling posts.

-- More attention paid to routes to employment and training

Vocational guidance as currently delivered in British schools often places much emphasis on routes to full-time further and higher education, rather less on employment combined with training possibilities. It is vital that youngsters intent on leaving school at 16 should be alerted to the minimum school leaving qualifications required for different types of work at an earlier stage (at the latest, during Year 10). Clear understanding of such requirements by pupils in other countries is felt to be important in motivating youngsters to work hard for good marks in relevant subjects in their school leaving exams.

More attention needs also to be placed on defining the entry requirements and career consequences of early vocational training, and on the skilled qualifications which can be gained while working. Careers classes in Year 11 (age 16) could be spent encouraging those pupils hoping to leave to apply to local companies--particularly to those local employers who are able to offer systematic training posts. Careers teachers and form tutors should have the responsibility of systematically following pupils' progress throughout Years 10 and 11, and ensuring that all school leavers have the offer of a place before leaving school. Pupils without offers by, say January in the year in which they hope to leave, could be interviewed by the Careers Service (perhaps paid for directly by the school on the basis of results) who should then take explicit responsibility for finding a traineeship or YT place for the school leaver.

- Work experience should begin earlier

During Year 9 pupils as a class or group could spend up to a half a dozen half-days in visits to different types of local employers. Pupils could be given the opportunity to see for themselves the working environment in a number of broad occupational groups, enabling a more informed choice of options at an earlier stage. Towards the end of Year 10, all potential leavers should be encouraged to spend one week each with at least two employers (preferably those offering traineeships). A 'county unit' based at LEA Careers Services could be given responsibility for ensuring sufficient numbers of work-experience placements are made available. Large firms could be encouraged to provide schools with up to, say, six half-day group-visits per year; smaller firms might be encouraged to provide an appropriately reduced number. Compliance could be required as a condition for the award of the current 'Investors in People' standard. Employers' liability insurance in relation to such visits should be met from public funds.

- Parents should be consulted at all stages of the guidance process

Careers guidance evenings at schools, for parents as a whole, should be organised separately from normal parents' evenings from Year 9. Parents should be informed of the respective and complementary roles of careers teachers at school and of the Careers Service, and encouraged to discuss their child's career prospects in individual sessions with these professionals. Parents should be expressly invited to all counselling sessions (including those with the Careers Service and individual counselling sessions), and their views as to their child's choices solicited. LEA-funded careers centres could be required to open on selected weekends and evenings--say once a month--so as to enable working parents to attend with their children.

In cases where parents are unable or unwilling to participate in their child's educational and career decisions, the pupil should be represented and guided at such sessions by his personal tutor--an individual tutor assigned to each pupil on entry to the school, who oversees the pupil's progress throughout his school-career and supplements parental involvement.

-- Individual guidance should be provided by agencies outside the school

To ensure the necessary objectivity of advice (and avoid suspicions of schools' unnecessarily recommending youngsters to 'stay on' for sixth-form studies in the school's financial interest), guidance to individual pupils should also be provided by agencies based outside the school (eg, the Careers Service). All pupils should be systematically interviewed by the Careers Service in the year prior to that in which they wish to leave. Pupils with no firm offers of a place by the end of December in their final year of compulsory schooling should be re-interviewed, with a view to the LEA taking responsibility for finding a placement for them.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks are due, above all, to the many secondary schools and firms here and on the Continent who gave so freely of their time enabling the comparisons reported here. We are grateful also to the various teachers, inspectors and training officers who accompanied us on our visits to the Continent and helped compare practice (and results) there. In addition, we should like to thank the following guidance experts in the four countries, who have commented extensively on previous drafts, though who would not necessarily agree with all of the recommendations. In Britain: D. Cleaton, East Sussex Careers Service; B. Law and A.G. Watts, National Institute for Careers Education and Counselling; in Germany: Dr L. Bubhoff, Fachhochschule fur Offentliche Verwaltung; Professor Dr K. Heller, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitat; in the Netherlands: J. Dronkers, Stichting Centrum voor Onderwijsonderzoek, Universiteit van Amsterdam; F. Spoek, National Institute for Curriculum Development (SLO); and in Switzerland: Dr C. Aeberli, Erzeihungsdirektion des Kantons Zurich; B. Hohn, Berufsberatung der Stadt Zurich; B. Keller-Schottdorf and P. Meyer, Kantonale Berufs- und Studienberatung Aargau. The article has benefitted also from many helpful comments from two anonymous referees and by my colleagues at the Institute; in particular, thanks are due to Elaine Beadle, Helvia Bierhoff, S.J. Prais and Karin Wagner. Financial support was provided by the Gatsby Charitable Foundation and the Leverhulme Trust. The author alone is responsible for errors and omissions.

REFERENCES

Bubhoff, L., and Heller, K.A. (1988), 'Educational and vocational guidance services for the 14-25 age group in the Federal Republic of Germany', in: Commission of the European Communities, Educational and Vocational Guidance Services for the 14-25 Age Group: Denmark, Federal Republic of Germany and the Netherlands, Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities.

Cleaton D. (1987), for the National Association of Careers and Guidance Teachers (NACGT), Survey of Careers Work, London: Newpoint Publishing.

Cleaton D. (1993) for NACGT and Institute of Careers Guidance (ICG), Careers Education and Guidance in British Schools: A Survey, Stourbridge: ICG.

National Curriculum Council (NCC) (1990), Curriculum Guidance 6: Careers Education and Guidance, York: NEC.

Confederation of British Industry (CBI) (1993), A Credit to Your Career: An Employers' View of Careers Education and Guidance.

Department of Education and Science with Her Majesty's Inspectorate of Schools (1988), Curriculum Matters 10: Careers Education and Guidance from 5-16,

London: HMSO.

Grimm, A. (1986), 'Berufswahlvorbereitung an der Realschule des Kantons Zurich', in: OECD/CERI, Der Ubergang von der Pflichtschule in das Berufsleben. Bonn: Bund-Lander-Kommission fur Bildungsplanung.

Her Majesty's Inspectorate of Schools (HMI) (1992), Survey of Guidance 13-19 in Schools and Sixth-form Colleges.

Merrick, N. (1992), 'Occupational hazards--on the changing role of the careers teacher', Times Educational Supplement (26 June).

Prais, S.J. (1993), 'Economic performance and education: the nature of Britain's deficiencies', National Institute Discussion Paper no. 52.

Spoek, F. (1988), 'Educational and vocational guidance services for the 14-25 age group in the Netherlands', in: Commission of the European Communities, Educational and Vocational Guidance Services for the 14-25 Age Group: Denmark, Federal Republic of Germany and the Netherlands, Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities.

Spoek, F. and Spijkerman, R. (1993), 'Educational and vocational guidance services in the Netherlands,' in: AG Watts, E Stern, and N Deen (eds), Career Guidance: Towards the 21 st Century, Cambridge: CRAC.

Steedman, H. (1993), 'Making decisions about education and training: a note on practice and procedures in careers guidance in France and Germany', National Institute Discussion Paper no. 55.

Watts, A.G. (1986), 'Educational and vocational guidance services for the 14-25 age group in the United Kingdom', in: Educational and Vocational Guidance Services for the 14-25 Age Group in the United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland and Greece, Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities.

Watts, A.G. (1991), 'The impact of the "new right": policy challenges confronting careers guidance in England and Wales', British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 19(3).

Watts, A.G. in association with Dartois, C., and Plant, P. (1988), Educational and Vocational Guidance Services for the 14-25 Age-Group in the European Community: The Synthesis Report of A Study Carried Out on Behalf of the Commission of the European Communities, Maastricht: Presses Interuniversitaires Europeennes.

White, P. (1982), 'Presidential address to the Institute of Careers Officers,' Careers Journal 3(2).

NOTES

(1) See the express acknowledgement given to vocational guidance in the co-sponsored DES/DE White Paper, Working Together for a Better Future (HMSO, 1987), and echoed in DES/DE, Education and Training for the 21st Century (HMSO, 1991). For a discussion of the broader benefits of vocational guidance, see: J. Killeen, M. White and A.G. Watts, The Economic Value of Careers Guidance (London: Policy Studies Institute, 1992).

(2) Britain and the United Kingdom are used throughout this article as convenient synonyms for England and Wales; similarly, references to 'the Continent' and 'Europe' in this article relate specifically to the three mainland countries discussed here. 'Careers guidance', 'vocational guidance', 'vocational preparation' and 'careers education' are used interchangeably in this article to denote the school-based guidance programmes aimed at preparing youngsters for the transition to working life.

(3) See Productivity, Education and Training: Britain and Other Countries Compared (reprints of studies published in the National Institute Economic Review), with a preface by S.J. Prais (NIESR, December 1989); and subsequent articles in the Review, most recently Mason, van Ark and Wagner, (February 1994).

(4) See Prais (1993).

(5) In most countries the trend of the past generation has been for ever-greater proportions of successive cohorts to remain in education beyond the end of compulsory schooling. Despite rapid increases in recent years in the numbers staying on, participation in post-compulsory education and training by 16-19-year-olds in Britain remains much lower than elsewhere in Europe, with just over half of all 16-year-olds 'staying on' beyond the end of compulsory schooling--the vast majority on general (rather than vocational) courses in schools and further education colleges. By age 18, only a quarter of British youngsters are still receiving any type of full- or part-time education. In Germany, by contrast, not simply is the full-time enrollment rate higher among 16-year-olds (around 75 per cent, roughly a third of whom will be completing full-time pre-vocational courses at Hauptschulen), but so too is the proportion studying part-time for nationally-recognised vocational qualifications under the apprenticeship system. By age 18, the great majority (some 70 per cent) of German youngsters are well on their way to completing nationally-validated and -recognised craft qualifications under the well-known 'dual' system. In the Netherlands, less than 10 per cent of youngsters leave school at 16; of those who do, all receive some form of additional instruction, either through a recognised apprenticeship or via the 1-2 days per week of off-job training (Leerplichtwet) compulsory for all under 18-year-olds not in full time education. While only a small number (up to 10 per cent of each cohort) train for craft qualifications through the apprenticeship system, a further 40 per cent gain vocational qualifications at full-time senior vocational colleges (MBOs). Figures for Switzerland estimate enrollment rates of around 78 per cent for 15-19-year-olds in 1987, with roughly 70 per cent of each cohort training under the recognised apprenticeship system. (Sources: For the UK: Department of Education and Science, Statistical Bulletin 13/91 Tables 3, 4, 7 and 8; for Germany: Statistisches Bundesamt, Bildung und Kultur Fachserie 1, Reihe 1, Allgemeinbildende Schulen 1990, pp. 67, 78, 89, 97, 108; for the Netherlands: Central Bureau of Statistics, Zakboek Onderwijsstatistieken 1991, Tables 6.1 and 6.3; for Switzerland: OECD, Review of National Policies for Education: Switzerland, p. 32.)

(6) For an early example of complaints of poor literacy and numeracy among school leavers, see the lamentations the West Midlands Engineering Employers' Association's Training Executive, R Gilbert, ('Counting the Cost of Bad Spelling', Personnel Management (May 1977), pp. 21-4). More recently, the problem has been voiced by the Confederation of British Industry (CBI), Towards a Skills Revolution (London: CBI, 1989), A Credit to Your Career: An Employers' View of Careers Education and Guidance (London: CBI, 1993), and Training--the Business Case (London: Coopers & Lybrand, 1993).

(7) See: Helvia Bierhoff and S.J. Prais, 'Britain's industrial skills and the school-teaching of practical subjects,' National Institute Economic Review (May 1993); and Prais (1993).

(8) The longer tradition of post-compulsory education and training on the Continent provides a rather clearer route for progression for those leaving school abroad than in Britain. Few of those on YT receive a training of the breadth and quality of that of the Continental apprentice. Moreover, it seems unlikely that most young people in Britain can attain the technical standards of their Continental peers without substantial improvements in school leaving attainments and a major reconsideration of national training policy--in particular, a substantial reexamination of YT funding arrangements (currently undifferentiated by industry) and a radical rethinking of the content and assessment of the new system of National Vocational Qualifications (NVQs).

(9) A great many more schools than mentioned above were visited in Britain and on the Continent as part of a wider set of comparisons bearing on the transition from school to work. The degree of questioning on vocational guidance varied: in some schools we had formal sessions in which individual pupils were questioned on their career intentions and the various sources of guidance they had received; in these schools and others we spoke to careers teachers and LEA careers officers; in yet others we relied on the views of head-teachers. While the value of a wider and more detailed survey should not be ruled out, the comments received from senior careers teachers and schools inspectors on a preliminary version of this article indicate that the account given here presents a fair picture of the overall state of careers guidance in the UK.

(10) The Dutch education system is currently in the process of a major reorganisation, including moves towards a common core curriculum for the first two years of secondary school. The outcome of the changes in practice is still unclear. The description of the Dutch system in this article relates to common practice in LBO schools up to, and including, the academic year 1991-92.

(11) Previous 'international' studies of vocational guidance have largely comprised of a series of 'country' reports individually prepared by national experts using a common 'guidance vocabulary' (see, for instance, the various national descriptions which make up the three-volume study, Educational and Vocational Guidance Services for the 14-25 Age Group, Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Community, 1988), but very little actual comparison. The 'synthesis report' by the series editors (Watts et al., 1988) sought to compare the institutional frameworks across European countries, but did not include detailed classroom observations.

(12) In Germany, for instance, vocational guidance is formally provided (ie, as a compulsory timetabled subject) only for Haupschule pupils (and those in the Hauptschule-streams of comprehensive schools). Careers guidance is still rare for pupils of the Realschulen and of the grammar-school-type Gymnasien, where it is covered in other lessons; the differentiation is justified on the grounds that resources are thus channelled towards those most in need, and for whom post-educational choices are most imminent. For an introduction into vocational guidance as presented in Germany, see Bubhoff and Heller (1988), or the extended version by B.J. Ertelt and K.A. Heller in the updated compilation by Watts et al (eds), Educational and Vocational Guidance Services in the European Community (in press). In both Germany and Switzerland, teachers in the types of schools visited receive extensive instruction in vocational guidance (in Switzerland, a minimum of 34 hours' lectures, plus a compulsory four-week placement in industry) as part of their teacher-training. See: Grimm (1986), especially pp. 110-1. As in Britain, vocational guidance in the Netherlands is provided for all pupils regardless of the type of school they attend. While there is no formal guidance curriculum for 14-16-year-olds in Holland, the vocational focus of schooling for LBO pupils in their final years of compulsory education ensures that hardly anyone leaves school without some specialised skills. For a useful introduction, see the report on the Netherlands by Spoek (1988).

(13) Contrast the objectives of the British guidance philosophy, as expounded in Watts (1991). Certainly it is important that pupils are aware of the full range of options, and no-one would wish to suppress careers teachers' challenging stereotypes; yet it is perhaps time to reconsider the relative importance of time spent discussing the wider social issues versus information on the content of specific occupations, and the routes to entering them, in careers guidance programmes.

(14) During their last 3 years in school (at ages 13-15), Haupschule pupils spend up to five hours a week in the practically-based Arbeitslehre, designed to offer both a general introduction to the world of work and develop students' practical competence (the content of German practical courses is discussed in Bierhoff and Prais, 1993). On the role of careers guidance within Arbeitslehre, and a sample curriculum for Baden-Wurttemberg, see Bubhoff and Heller (1988), especially pp. 27ff.

(15) The most common in Germany is the succession of six booklets produced by the Federal Employment Institute which comprise Mach's Richtig (loosely translated: 'Do It Right'). Swiss schools are free to choose from an approved selection; in practice most schools choose either E. Egloff, Berufswahlvorbereitung (Lehrmittelverlag des Kantons Aargau, 1984) or R.Schmid, Wegweiser zur Berufswahl (Zurich: Schweizerischen Verbandes fur Berufsberatung, 1985).

(16) As one British commentator has written, following his observations in Germany, 'the booklets produced for careers teachers and careers counsellors to use in the classroom are first class ... superbly produced, with plenty of visual appeal' (A. Vincent, 'Careers Information in West Germany,' Careers and Guidance Teacher, Autumn 1981, p. 23).

(17) See for instance, Egloff, Berufswahlvorbereitung, pp. 25-29.

(18) Already in Book 1 of the six-book German vocational guidance text (Mach's Richtig: Wie finde ich Berufe, die zu mir passen? 1991 edition, pp. 10-11), pupils are encouraged to consider their performance in their academic subjects (here: mathematics), as well as the duration, frequency, and circumstances which have accompanied their current performance when selecting possible occupations. Later in the programme (Book 5, Wie bewerbe ich reich richtig?, p. 11), pupils are again reminded of the importance of their academic education (particularly, German and mathematics), and are reminded that it will be assessed by employers during entrance tests.

(19) Most often during the 8th grade in most German Lander, 9th grade in Berlin; sometimes not till their final year in Switzerland.

(20) Pupils often gain further work experience in additional occupations--or with different employers--during the school-holidays. Employers in many parts of Switzerland expect to take a number of pupils during the Easter holidays, and plan their schedules around this.

(21) In Britain, Careers Officers are, for all intents and purposes, under the administration of the Local Education Authority.

(22) This section has benefitted from associated research by my colleague Hilary Steedman (1993).

(23) While many British guidance practitioners view the Continental 'narrowness of purpose' as restrictive, it is interesting to note the diversity of occupations considered by pupils at such schools. For illustrative purposes, we recount the responses of a table of four pupils in a small Hauptschule in a suburb of Munich. While still a year or so from the point of leaving school, all took it as second nature that the next step following school was an apprenticeship. Each of the pupils had a clear idea of what their training would involve, and three of the four had a prospective employer-trainer picked out. One girl spoke of her desire to become a medical secretary, one hoped to train as a nursery nurse, while another was set for clerical work beginning by training in the specific apprenticeship for 'architectural assistants'. The boy in the party hoped to become a pastry cook (Konditor). These were all occupations requiring extensive training courses; a remarkable feature, from the point of view of British observers, is that these occupations were thought to be properly within the range of those in the lowest third of the academic attainment-range.