Single mothers--how are they doing?

Hill, Kathy L.

INTRODUCTION

Since the 1950's, traditional families have become increasingly rare with a boost in other types of family structures, specifically single parent households headed by women. For the past two decades, the number of single mothers has been increasing. These single parents are faced with economic and social obstacles as they try to care for their families.

From 1993 to 2003, the number of single mothers increased to approximately 77%. In 1993 the average number of single parents was 7.7 million compared to 13.7 million single parents in 2007 and approximately 84% of those parents were mothers. Single working mothers ages 55 to 64 total 31% and ages 15-24 total 4%. Single mothers are spread among all economic levels, ages, races, education, employment, and occupations (Grall, 2009).

From 1960 to 2007, the percentage of American women who were married fell from 66% to 51%, the percentage of men who were married fell from 69% to 55%, and the number of cohabiting couples increased from 439,000 to more than 6.4 million. Because of the increase in cohabitation, about 40% of American children spend some time in a cohabiting union; 20% of babies are born to cohabiting couples, and the vast majority of the children born to cohabiting couples see their parents break up by the time they turn 15 (Wilcox, 2009).

From an emotional and social perspective, about 20% of divorced adults find their lives enhanced and another 50% seem to suffer no long-term ill effects. Yet, men and/or women can be caught in a downward emotional spiral, experience difficulties at work, and go through serious deteriorations in their relationships with their children. Because of the divorce, many will lose their homes, a substantial share of their monthly incomes, and regular contact with their children (Hetherington & Kelly, 2007).

Educators, lawmakers, and religious leaders continually express their concerns regarding the erosion and possible extinction of the traditional family (Moss, 2009). What=s more alarming are the potential debilitating effects broken families have on children and their development. Wilcox (2009) argues that the children of divorced parents are two to three times more likely to suffer from serious social or psychological problems than children from intact marriages. McLanahan and Sandefur (1994) found that 31% of adolescents with divorced parents dropped out of high school, compared to 13% of children from intact families; that 33% of adolescent girls from divorced families became teen mothers, compared to 11% from parents who were continuously married; and that 11% of boys from divorced families end up spending time in prison before the age of 32, compared to 5% of boys who come from intact homes. The consequences for children are immense. Some of these consequences include: 750,000 children have to repeat grades; 1.2 million school children are suspended; approximately 500,000 acts of teenage delinquency are committed; 600,000 kids receive therapy; and approximately 70,000 kids commit suicide every year (Amato, Booth, Johnson & Rogers, 2007). Many children=s lives would improve significantly if the family-stability clock could be turned back just a few decades (Amato, et al, 2007).

When children are exposed to high levels of conflict at home, they seem to do better when their parents separate, but most divorces do not involve high levels of conflict; therefore, the clear majority of divorces involving children in America are not in the best interests of the children (Amato et al, 2007).

Research also indicates that remarriage is no salve for children wounded by divorce. AChildren whose parents have remarried do not have higher levels of well-being than children in lone-parent families (Cherlin, 2009, p 5). Remarriage generally requires a move and more adjustment for children who thrive on stability (Cherlin, 2009).

Many studies have been completed about children and their unfavorable behaviors because of being raised in single parent households. One research study concluded that children do worse when raised by single parents--specifically low-income single mothers (Hofferth, Smith, McLoyd, & Finkelstein, 2000). Given their low wages, below average education, and harsh environment, many single mothers look to the government for help. In turn, social programs are instituted in hopes of improving the plight of single parents and the general welfare of their children.

It is often said that it is difficult enough for two parents to raise a child, let alone one parent. When that single parent depends only on a high school diploma to obtain employment and care for a family of two or more, it makes staying above the poverty line difficult if not impossible. However, with a college education to elevate wages, raising a child becomes more economically feasible. Results from a Brown University study showed that single mothers, compared with married mothers, reported substantially lower incomes, higher rates of childhood abuse and more psychiatric disorders (Hofferth, et al., 2000). These issues undoubtedly affect child development and behavior. Therefore, it is essential to gain insight into understanding and improving the position of single mothers in the workforce today.

The purpose of this study was to discuss economic and social factors that affect low-income single mothers and their children. Economic factors such as sometimes-severe financial hardships, the cognitive development of their children, poverty-level living conditions, and quality child care which affects labor force participation were assessed. Social issues such as receiving little or no support from fathers, children's behavioral problems, and society's misconceptions about single mothers were examined in the related literature.

ECONOMIC FACTORS

For the past two decades, single parent families have escalated while traditional two parent families have been on the decline. For married-couple families, both the poverty rate and the number in poverty increased from 4.9 percent (2.8 million) in 2007 to 5.5 percent (3.3 million) in 2008. The poverty rate and the number in poverty showed no statistical change in 2008 for female-householder-with-no-husband-present families (28.7 percent and 4.2 million) and for male-householder-no wife-present families (13.8 percent and 723,000) (US Census Bureau, 2008). These living situations make it difficult for families to remain healthy and in tact.

Many research studies have been conducted in the area of single mothers. One such study, lead by Aurora P. Jackson in 2000, demonstrated how economic hardships influenced parental psychological functioning and family relationships (Jackson, Brooks-Gunn, Huang, & Glassman, 2000). For example, her study showed that financial strain lead to depressive symptoms. In turn, those depressive symptoms disrupted effective parenting skills and, subsequently, children's behavior. The mothers tested in Jackson's study experienced several factors associated with economic hardships little or no monetary support from fathers, low wage jobs, and no education beyond high school (Jackson et al., 2000). These risks contributed to the mother's level of financial strain. Single mothers have a higher level of financial strain because, basically, they are the sole caretaker and the only source of income; therefore, depression is the result. Depression is a psychological function that is a direct result of financial strain. As economic hardships influence single mothers psychological functioning, these difficulties become predictors for single mother's children's cognitive and social development (Jackson et al., 2000).

Financial strain was shown in Jackson's study to have adverse effects on children's development. For example, preschoolers displayed learning disabilities in addition to other behavioral problems (Jackson et al., 2000). To confer with Jackson's evidence, University of Michigan research scientist Sandra Hofferth et al (2000) argued that low-income parents simply do not have enough money to invest in books, educational activities, toys, and other advantages that require financial resources. The result is that their children's cognitive skills are lower, leading to lower levels of completed school; therefore, their children's achievement level correlated with their income level. The lower the household income, the lower the achievement levels for those children. Robert Rector (2001), Heritage Foundation Policy Analyst, gave congressional testimony that supported Jackson's claim. In his research, he found that single parenthood had significant deleterious consequences on children's development, which impeded their ability to become successful members of mainstream society (Rector, 2001). These harmful effects were more prevalent for males with female head of householders than female children. Jackson's et al (2000) study showed that problematic behaviors are dependent upon a child's gender. The mother's depressive symptoms contribute to the child's behavioral problems as well, which in turn hinder family relationships from strengthening (Jackson et al., 2000).

As noted earlier in Jackson's study (Jackson et al., 2000), depression was caused by economic hardships. University of Kansas Assistant Professor Sondra G. Beverly (2001) acknowledged that economic hardships were most prevalent among single mothers even when the economy is booming (Beverly, 2001). She also pointed out that low-income single mothers live and cope with sometimes-severe economic hardships daily.

A second study by Peter D. Brandon and Gene A. Fisher (2001) stated that insufficient income as a family stressor could affect the quality of care given to children. In addition, evidence exists to suggest that insufficient child care options could be a strong barrier to labor force participation and more of an employment barrier for public-housing residents and single parents (Kimmel, 1998). Author Elisabeth Porter (2001) of The Journal of Gender Studies, stated that poverty is due to women's lack of earning power, inadequate job skills, and scanty access to decent childcare. Thus, women are better off on welfare than in low-paying jobs (Porter, 2001). In contrast, Washington Post columnist Dan Froomkin (1998) wrote that economic hardships were not an excuse for people to live off government checks or for them to avoid unemployment. In a study conducted by Alexis J. Walker (2000), Aemployed@ mothers actually found it more difficult to meet their everyday expenses. Because of expenses incurred because they had jobs, single mothers had little or no time to take on additional jobs (Walker, 2000). Many single mothers find themselves in a Catch-22 situation.

Author Mulroy found that many single mothers want to work and not be dependent on the government for help, but society sends them mixed messages: middle class women should stay at home with their children, but poor women should leave their children and go to work (Lockwood-Rayermann, 2000). Because of the imbalance of working mothers and stay-at-home mothers, single mothers often experience role strain from attempting to balance being a wage earner and having parental responsibilities (Kerka, 1988). An emotional struggle ensues between being a good parent and being a good, although, employed parent. Researchers Jo Anne Youngblut, et al., (2000) added that media stereotyping suggested that single mothers often engage in behaviors to avoid employment. In addition, Froomkin (1998) wrote that government assistance was responsible for a permanent underclass of people who had absolutely no incentive to seek employment. However, in contrast to Froomkin's claim, LaShunda Hall, government assistance recipient, proved critics wrong when she successfully completed Wisconsin Works Program (Hall, 2001).

LaShunda Hall (2001), single mother of two, gave congressional testimony about her entrance into mainstream society. Once faced with continuous economic hardships, this single mother was able to overcome barriers and become self-sufficient. She participated in the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) funded program, Wisconsin Works. Hall was provided counseling and a case manager. These two people enabled Hall to get her GED and to enroll in a four-year college, happily pursuing a Bachelor's of Science degree in Criminal Justice (Hall, 2001). Single mothers have the daunting task of providing for their families with only one source of income. This places an incredible strain on the emotional welfare of the child as well as the parent. Furthermore, single parents have to be watchful of how economics can affect their children and adopt ways of making financial strain more tolerable.

A study by researcher Linda McCreary (2000) stated that communication was a behavior associated with effective families and that this trait carried forward throughout adulthood. Effective family structure leads to well-behaved children at home as well as at school (Hofferth, et al., 2000). Additionally, single parents that participate in school activities help raise their children's achievement level, and it also strengthens the parent child bond (Sanson, 2001).

SOCIAL FACTORS

The emergence of the divorce and marriage dichotomy in America creates a host of other social problems. The breakdown of marriage in working-class and poor communities has played a major role in fueling poverty and inequality. Isabel Sawhill, a nationally known budget expert who focuses on domestic poverty and federal fiscal policy at the Center on Children and Families at the Brookings Institution, has concluded that virtually all of the increase in child poverty in the United States since the 1970's can be attributed to family breakdown (Wilcox, 2009).

In addition to financial strain, single mothers are tested by their children's behavior or lack thereof. To make matters worse, single mothers are raising their children without support from their children's fathers. Many fathers have chosen not to be an active part of their children's lives. This decision has hardened the hearts of many single mothers.

Numerous children under the age of 18 will grow up without having their biological father or a father figure in their lives. Author Nancy Darling (1999) stated that uninvolved parenting could have detrimental effects on childhood development and could continue throughout adolescence and pre-adulthood (Darling, 1999).

Single mothers are faced with the dilemma of having the dual role of being sole family breadwinner and the sole resident care giving parent (Lockwood-Rayermann, 2000). When fathers are not around to share the child care, the full responsibility falls to the mother, increasing her sense of overwhelming obligation (Youngblut, et al., 2000).

Most children want their fathers involved in their lives. The amount of interaction between fathers and their children is very important. Children need their fathers in order to form a stronger definition of self.

Growing up in female-headed households can produce children that have difficulty adjusting in school and society (Jackson et al., 2000 & McCreary, 2000). Family structure plays a significant part in adolescents' grades and attendance according to some research findings. They found that adolescents from intact homes perform better academically and maintain better school attendance than do those students from either single-parent or remarried homes (Ham, 2004).

There have been conflicting studies showing whether children of single parents experience more behavioral problems than those growing up in two-parent households. Single parents and their children live in a society that views their families as >broken,= >abnormal,= >deviant,= and >doomed to fail=@ (Rhodes, 2000). Single mother is a phrase that conjures up poor, lazy individuals unwilling to be self-sufficient, and society should be especially wary of her children because they will never amount to anything.

Children are stigmatized and stereotyped by society because of the status of their mothers and society's perception of them. Author Carolyn Rogers (2001) wrote that children in single parent families tend to face more disadvantages than children in two-parent families. She added that single parent children might receive less attention and care from their parents. Additionally, these children tend to have more school related health and behavioral problems which could lead to completing fewer years of schooling (Rogers, 2001).

Cornell University Professor Henry Ricciuti (1999) conducted a study that focused on 1,700 six- and seven-year old children residing in single mother households. He found that potentially adverse behavior of single parent children might not surface until later in childhood (Ricciuti, 1999). It is possible for children to perform and behave very well in school during the early years. However, as they grow and develop, conditions exist for them to react adversely to their home life-especially if that home life is filled with strife and instability. For example, before LaShunda Hall (2001) turned her life around, she was fiercely painting a path of destruction. She is an example of how economic and social issues can adversely affect the children of single parent--especially single mothers. Professor Ricciuti (1999) suggested that steps be taken when children are young before possible harmful effects of single parenthood emerge. These battles add to the war single mothers fight every day.

Behavioral problems and absent fathers add to single mothers' burdens. Additionally, single mothers must cope with some of society's negative perception of them. They have to cope with depression, low self-esteem, and the myths that society has generated about them and their children (Van Horn, 1999). With unlimited barriers, many single mothers still manage to persevere as in the case of LaShunda Hall (2001). Single parents must have the fortitude to endure the difficulty of raising children alone.

SUMMARY

The purpose of this study was to discuss economic and social factors that affect low-income single mothers and their children. The first objective of this study was to discuss economic factors that affect low-income single mothers and their children. Researcher Jackson et al (2000) identified financial strain as a precursor to depression. Once depressive symptoms emerged, single mothers exhibited ineffective and potentially harmful parenting skills (Jackson et al., 2000). Additionally, economic hardships were magnified when single mothers had to contend with little or no monetary support from fathers and low paying jobs (Jackson et al., 2000). These issues disrupted single mothers' children=s cognitive and social development (Jackson et al., 2000).

Research scientist Hofferth, et al (2000) argued that low-income single parents do not have the resources to provide educational tools necessary for their children=s development. Inadequate supply of financial resources leads to children completing only lower levels of school (Hofferth, et al., 2000). Financial strain was shown to have unhealthy effects on single mothers and especially on their children.

Researchers Brandon and Fisher (2001) stated that insufficient income affected the quality of care given to children. Kimmel (1998) added that single mothers often find insufficient income as a barrier to employment.

Researcher Walker (2000) found in her study that many working single mothers had difficulties meeting everyday expensesBexpenses they would not have if they were unemployed. Author Mulroy found that single mothers often find themselves in a quandary: They can=t afford to work. This state of perplexity propels single mothers to indulge in stress relievers (Lockwood-Rayermann, 2000).

The second objective of this study was to discuss social factors that affect low-income single mothers and their children. Absent fathers, below-level status, and possible behavioral problems were some social issues discussed. Columnist Wade Horn (1998) suggested that absent or non-involved fathers could have a detrimental effect on children. In addition, Ricciuti (1999) found that possible adverse behaviors might not surface until later in childhood.

Children of single parents often have behavioral problems (Jackson et al., 2000). Single parents, whether mothers or fathers, have a difficult time raising their children to be healthy, well-adjusted, respectful, and successful adults. Coupled with economic hardships and social issues, single parents, mothers or fathers, often find themselves at the end of their rope. However, many single parents find the support and guidance needed to overcome their present situations.

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Kathy L. Hill, Sam Houston State University