Emotional and informational social support: exploring contrasting influences on human resource management innovation.

Nelson, Millicent ; Brice, Jeff, Jr.

INTRODUCTION

Previous research has chiefly studied the emotional aspect of social support and limited its role to coping assistance, which is defined as actions taken by significant others to help individuals deal with stressful events. This positive effect of social support has been demonstrated in numerous studies in the areas of medicine and health (Dormann & Zapf, 1999; Uchino, Cacioppo, & KiecoltGlaser, 1996). However, relatively few studies have investigated the effect(s) of social support in the work environment. In this vein, some studies have shown that social support helps to reduce stress and the ancillary effects of stress in the workplace (Jonge, et al, 2001; Ducharme & Martin, 2000).

This study proposes that the benefits of social support may go well beyond coping. When people have problems they often seek help from other people. We examine both emotional and informational social support in the investigation of the interpersonal aspects of organizational innovation, specifically human resource management innovations.

LITERATURE REVIEW

McIntosh (1991) defines general social support as the resources a person receives, actual or perceived, that increase the sense of well being of the receiver. This definition assumes people must rely on one another to meet certain needs. Similarly, Shumaker and Brownell, (1984) defined social support as an exchange of resources by two individuals, a giver and a receiver, to increase the well being of the receiver.

House (1981) delineated two types of social support, or supportive behaviors, as emotional and informational support. Emotional support is defined as behaviors that show care for the employees and their work (House, 1981). Listening, providing empathy, and showing concern are acts of emotional support. Conversely, informational support means providing a person with information that can be used to handle personal and environmental problems (House, 1981). Informational support, unlike instrumental support, involves providing employees with information that they can use to help themselves (House, 1981). Examples of informational support include advice, guidance, suggestions, directives and information. The relevance of the source and types of support is dependent upon the persons involved and the kind of support required by them.

The interpersonal aspects of organizational innovation have been mainly ignored in the literature. The Academy of Management Journal's (1996) special issue on innovations and organizations curiously had no articles addressing the behavioral aspects of innovation. Most research on innovation has focused on the adoption or diffusion of innovations (Abrahamson, 1991; Abrahamson & Rosenkopf, 1993; Rogers, 1962; 1995). Rogers (1962) defined the diffusion process as the spread of a new idea from the initial awareness of an innovation to its adoption by users. However, the essence of the diffusion process is the human interaction in which one person communicates a new idea to another person. When faced with problems, people turn to others as one of their sources for information. People are influenced by their relationships with others; therefore the social relationship between people may be instrumental in the decision that is made. This relationship should also influence decisions that are consequently made about the innovation. The theory of problem solving behavior (Tallman, Gray, & Stafford, 1993) addresses the process of problem solving by explaining how a person becomes aware of a problem, and addressing when and why people choose certain actions to solve a problem. Thus, the theory of problem solving behavior also differentiates between coping with a problem and solving it.

Although not all innovations are the result of pending problems, this research is limited to those innovations resulting from decision-makers' uncertainty regarding how to resolve problems. Numerous authors have argued (Pfeffer, 1995; Capelli & Crocker-Hefter, 1996; Hitt, Keats, & DeMarie, 1998) that human resource (HR) policies, practices, and methods can create a source of competitive advantage for organizations that is difficult to replicate. Specifically, this research focuses on the innovations process as it relates to human resource management (HRM) functions since the way a company manages its workforce could determine whether it will be able to establish and maintain a competitive advantage (Huselid, 1995; Delaney & Huselid, 1996; Becker & Gerhart, 1996).

Damanpour's (1991) meta-analytic review of organizational innovations described the field of innovation as extensive and, therefore, required a definition that included innovations from all aspects of the organization. He defined innovation as a product, service, process, program, or device that is new to the organization adopting or implementing it. Human resource management innovation (HRMI) is defined as an idea, policy, program, practice, or system that is related to the human resource management (HRM) function and is new to the adopting organization (Kossek, 1989; Wolfe, 1995). Wolfe (1995) categorized HRM as having six functions: recruiting and selection; appraisal; training and development; rewards and benefits; organizational design; and communication.

Social Support and HRM Innovations

Barnard (1938) described the organization as a system of cooperative efforts. Individuals must work together to accomplish the goals of the organization. People are generally social individuals in that they live and work with others and their lives are interdependent upon each other. Understanding the effects of social relationships bring us closer to determining the psychological and behavior processes that are necessary to be productive at work. The provision of social support is a means by which interpersonal communication occurs among employees within the organization. All communication about the innovation facilitates the problem solving process and leads to the adoption or rejection of the HRMI.

Aiken and Hage (1971) concluded that an organic organization with an effective interpersonal communication channel is vital for successful innovation. They suggested the implementation of mechanisms that would encourage formal and informal communication throughout all levels of the organization. House (1991) also argued that an organic organization has more innovations because the weak structure in the organization would allow for the manifestation of individual behavior. Likewise, Rogers (1995) proposed that although mass media is the fastest way to communicate a new idea to potential adopters, interpersonal channels are more effective in persuading an individual to accept the new idea.

Kirton (1976) individualized the innovation process and described the cognitive style of adopters of innovations based on the amount of structure needed to solve a problem. He argued that everyone can be located on a continuum ranging from an ability to do things better to the ability to do things differently, called adaptive and innovative, respectively. This classification scheme is based on adaptation-innovation as a basic dimension of personality relevant to the analysis of organizational change. Kirton (1976) believed that there are personality differences between innovators and adaptors. He developed the Kirton Adaption-Innovation Inventory or KAI to evaluate whether an individual is an innovator or an adaptor. Kirton (1990) suggested that both innovators and adaptors are needed for organizational effectiveness. Adaptors are characterized as precise, reliable, efficient, and methodical. Innovators, on the other hand, are seen as undisciplined, thinking tangentially, and approaching tasks from unexpected angles. Innovators bring needed change to the organization while adaptors provide stability.

Some forms of social support may be more important than others in the innovation process. According to the theory of problem solving behavior, the extent of the information search depends upon the perceived difficulty of the problem (Tallman, Gray, & Stafford, 1993). As the problem becomes more complex, there is a need for more information, and likewise more informational support. In addition, the problem solving style of the decision-maker may affect the information one receives. Adaptors are concerned with the more traditional problems of the organization while innovators are known for looking outside the current paradigm (Kirton, 1994).

Keller and Holland (1978) conducted a study of research and development departments and found that adaptors were knowledgeable of internal company policies and procedures, while innovators were more familiar with the latest technology, especially from outside the company. Adaptors make decisions that are less risky and more a part of the status quo, therefore, decisions are being made using heuristics and other established mental maps. The innovator, on the other hand, makes decisions about new ideas that may challenge the accepted way of doing things in the organization. The innovator will want information, such as, how the innovation works, whom else has implemented it, and with what results, as well as the impact the innovation may have in this situation. Their decisions bring about more radical change in the organization and involve more risk.

Employees may also receive social support outside the organization. For example, an employee needing assistance may seek information, as well as emotional support, from external colleagues who are knowledgeable about the innovation. Sometimes the person who has experienced the same problem is not going to be a coworker from the same organization. Instead the innovator may have to go outside the organization and utilize their personal network of colleagues to get information and reduce uncertainty about the innovation. In addition, internal colleagues view the innovator as a maverick and are unwilling to provide support for his/her ideas (Rogers, 1995).

Dougherty and Hardy (1996) found that individuals lacking organizational support utilized their own networks to spread information about innovations. Abrahamson and Rosenkopf (1997) conducted computer simulations to show the effect of social networks in the innovation process. They concluded that the innovator received information about innovations through his/her network and this information influenced whether an innovation was adopted. These studies suggest,

Hypothesis 1a: The innovator problem solving style is positively related to informational support received from outside the organization.

Hypothesis 1b: The innovator problem solving style is negatively related to informational support received from within the organization.

Because an innovation is something new for the organization, it is inherently associated with some risk. Albrecht and Hall (1991) argued that new ideas are risky because they are a change to the status quo and because they allow other organization members an opportunity to evaluate the merits of the idea. No one can be certain of the outcome when implementing something new, even if the current situation has problems. There is also no guarantee that the new idea will improve the current situation. Consequently, not all innovations will be implemented and some of those that are implemented will not be beneficial to the organization (Abrahamson, 1991; O'Neil, Pouder & Buchholtz, 1998).

Information about an innovation decreases its risk by reducing uncertainty about changes in the organization. As the innovator receives information from sources where the innovation has been adopted, he/she becomes more confident about implementation in his/her organization. This confidence may even lead to the innovator becoming a champion for implementing the innovation. This means he/she is willing to recommend the adoption of the innovation as well as defend any opposition to its implementation. . Ideas that are adopted almost always have an individual who champions the idea and supports its implementation.

Wolfe (1995) discussed the role of an innovation champion who advocates and promotes human resource management innovations. The innovation champion counters inherent resistance to change found in the organization and pushes the innovation. Meyer and Goes (1988) concluded from their interviews of hospital administrators, physicians, board members, and nurses that CEOs provide considerable influence by championing the assimilation of innovations. Howell and Higgins (1990) developed a model that included the personality characteristics of champions. They argued that innovation champions are risk takers, have a high need for achievement, and are persuasive, persistent, and innovative. They used information-technology innovations to support their hypothesis that innovation champions were willing to take more risk and were more innovative than non-champions. Information is important to the decision to champion an innovation. Thus,

Hypothesis 2: Informational social support is positively related to personal involvement in the adoption of the innovation.

During the decision-making stage of the innovation process, the innovator must decide, based in large part on the information search, whether to accept or reject the innovation. It is psychologically difficult to separate the message from the messenger. When the idea is being considered, the messenger bringing the idea is also evaluated. At this time, the innovator will be selective in seeking emotional support. The person(s) chosen will have to be someone the innovator feels comfortable talking to as well as someone he or she can trust. Albrecht and Hall (1991) conducted two studies on the role of interpersonal communication and personal relationships on organizational innovation. They found that people discussed new ideas with others they perceived as being trustworthy and supportive. In addition, relationships that went beyond work and included some type of social or personal attachment yielded more discussion of innovations.

Additional support for the positive benefits of emotional support can be found in studies of both children and adults. When middle and high school children received emotional support from parents and teachers, they were more satisfied with school and spent more time studying (Richman, Rosenfeld, & Bowen, 1998). Likewise, Ford (1985) investigated the effects of emotional support in interpersonal relationships for work outcomes and found that emotional support was more important than other types of social support for positive work outcomes and for satisfaction with coworkers. These studies suggest the importance of emotional support for a sense of satisfaction. When a person is making an important decision with unpredictable outcomes, such as the adoption of a new idea, he or she will look to others for support. If that support is in favor of the decision, he or she is more likely to adopt the idea. Consequently,

Hypothesis 3: Emotional support moderates the relationship between informational support and personal involvement in the innovation, such that when emotional support is low, increased information is positively related to more personal involvement in the innovation.

METHODOLOGY

Sample

The design of this study was cross-sectional using a self-administered questionnaire. The sample consisted of professional members of the Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM) from Area IV. Using the SHRM website, which lists the president's name for each chapter, HR chapters in Area IV were contacted by telephone and/or email and requested to participate in the research. A cover letter, briefly explaining the purpose of the research, and a questionnaire was mailed or emailed to the president of each chapter. (Due to privacy concerns, chapter presidents would not provide the authors with the email or home addresses of their members.)

Chapter presidents agreed to distribute the questionnaire via email, newsletter, or during their chapter meetings, however there was no way to verify that questionnaires were actually distributed. Those who received the questionnaire could respond by mail, fax, or email to the author. In addition, most respondents could also complete and submit the questionnaire online. A follow up letter and another copy of the questionnaire were sent to chapter presidents approximately two weeks later. A total of 169 questionnaires were received from all sources with 100 usable for this study.

Measures

Problem Solving Style

In this research, problem solving style was measured using the modified Kirton Adaption-Innovation Inventory or KAI (Kirton, 1976), which evaluates the characteristic approach a person has towards problem solving and decision-making and their propensity to innovate. The Adaption-Innovation theory underlying the KAI posits that a person can be located on a single dimension of cognitive style, with the end points labeled as Adaptors and Innovators. The original KAI consist of 32 items and produced a score that distinguishes adaptors from innovators on a continuum. The modified KAI has 13-items with each item scored on a scale from 1 (very difficult) to 5 (very easy). Respondents were asked to describe how easy or difficult it is to do and maintain a set of behaviors such as "have original ideas, enjoy detailed work, and never act without proper authority." The Cronbach alpha was .80.

Emotional Social Support and Informational Social Support

This variable was measured by an index adapted from previous research (i.e., House, 1981; Dormann & Zapf, 1999). The items were slightly rephrased to be more specific to this sample of human resource management professionals. Sample items included "I can talk to my colleagues if I have a problem at work" and "I value the advice I receive from my colleagues." The same information was requested regarding internal colleagues and external business associates. Social support was measured on a Likert scale of 1 to 5, where 1 is strongly disagree and 5 is strongly agree. The Cronbach alphas ranged from .84 to .88.

Personal Involvement in the Innovation

This assessment was accomplished by asking respondents a series of questions about a problem that may have resulted in the adoption of an innovation as the solution. First, the respondents were given the definition of HRMI as defined in this research. Then they were asked whether there was an HRM problem that required a change in the way things were currently done. If the answer was yes, the respondents were then asked two additional questions. The first question was "To what extent did you personally investigate the use of a new product ..." and the second question was "To what extent did you personally take action to insure the adoption of the new product ..." Both questions used a Likert scale of 1 to 5, where 1 is not at all and 5 is to a great extent. The two additional questions were correlated at .624 (Pearson Correlation), which was significant at the .01 level, indicating appropriateness to total the responses from these questions. The sum of these two questions was used as a measure of personal involvement in the innovation. The Cronbach alpha was .77.

Data Analysis and Results

All hypotheses were tested using regression analysis. Hypothesis 1a, which posited that innovators receive informational support from external colleagues, was supported. In this analysis, the dependent variable, external informational support, was regressed on the independent variable, problem-solving style. As shown in Table 1, the relationship between problem solving style (innovators) and external information support was positive and significant (F = 6.76, p < .05), supporting hypothesis 1a.

Hypothesis 1b posited that the innovator problem solving style was negatively related to informational support from internal colleagues. The dependent variable, internal information support was regressed on problem solving style, the independent variable. The relationship between problem solving style (innovators) and internal information support was also significant (F = 4.65, p < .05), but the relationship was positive while the hypothesized relationship was a negative one. Hypothesis 1b was therefore not supported. Hypotheses 1a and 1b indicate that innovators, contrary to hypothesis 1b, receive both internal and external information support.

Hypothesis 2 posited that informational support was positively associated with personal involvement in the innovation, but the analysis showed this relationship was not significant (F = 0.741, p > .05); therefore Hypothesis 2 was not supported.

Hypotheses 3 postulated that emotional support has a moderating effect on the relationship between information support and personal involvement in the innovation. As shown in Table 2, the main effect of informational support and emotional support on personal involvement in the innovation was significant (F = 2.166, p < .05). However, the interactive effect of information support and emotional support on personal involvement in the innovation was not significant (F = -1.792, p > .05), but further analysis did reveal significance at a higher level (F = -1.792, p < .10). At the same time the change in R Squared also becomes significant (F = 2.484, p< .10). This provides some support for hypothesis 3.

The interaction effect may be explained in that when emotional support at work is low, increased information support serves to increase personal involvement in the innovation. However, when emotional support at work is high, increased information support does not increase personal involvement in the innovation. Furthermore, with the exception of very high levels of informational support, high emotional support works to increase personal involvement in organizational innovations.

DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS

The findings from this study indicate that HR innovators receive informational social support from internal as well as external colleagues. Innovators, unlike adaptors, bring change to the organization. They have their own social networks from which they get information. Network members usually come from other organizations, where an innovation may have been adopted or implemented already. Although persons within the organization are assumed to view the innovator as a maverick (Rogers, 1995) and are perceived as unwilling to provide support for the innovator's ideas, this study indicates that HR innovators do get informational support from inside the organization.

There may be at least two explanations why innovators choose to get informational support from both within and outside their organization. First, there may be other innovators in the organization who can and will provide informational support to fellow innovators. Since HR professionals spend a great deal of time interacting and exchanging information with others, they may have advanced capability and opportunity to utilize internal information sources. Second, if innovators perceive a problem as highly complex, they may search extensively (Tallman, Gray, & Stafford, 1993) for resolution and end up utilizing both internal and external information sources. Further research needs to be initiated to explore these possibilities.

Some support was also found for the proposed moderating effect of emotional support in the decision making process. When emotional support was low, more information increased personal involvement in the innovation. Conversely, when emotional support was high, more information did not increase personal involvement. In fact, when emotional support was high, more information slightly decreased personal involvement in the innovation. This finding seems counterintuitive until one considers the characteristics of emotional support. Emotional support involves acts of listening, providing empathy and showing care for another. Too much of that kind of behavior in an organization could be counterproductive to individual performance. An employee who is spending a lot of time talking to others and receiving empathy for personal or other problems may not be focused on getting the job done. In addition, the employee may not feel the need to be productive because he or she already has the approval of others. This finding is important because it suggests that there may be an optimum level for the receipt of social support in that too much may be distracting.

These results also suggest that when personal involvement is low, both emotional and informational support can increase involvement. But, if there is already a high level of either emotional or informational support, additional support will not increase involvement with the innovation. Additionally, job descriptions and organizational roles may limit the degree of involvement in innovations.

The findings from this research indicate that the beneficial effects of social support go beyond health and well-being. Some forms of social support influence the problem solving process and may lead to better decisions. Effective work relationships where individuals provide support to one another will be crucial to addressing and resolving current and future problems and challenges of the organization. However, further research is needed to provide further insight.

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Millicent Nelson, Middle Tennessee State University

Jeff Brice, Jr., Texas Southern University

Table 1: Regression Analyses (Main Effects)

Regression Dependent Independent F-statistic
 Variable Variable

Analysis 1 EIS PSS 6.76 **
Analysis 2 IIS PSS 4.65 **
Analysis 3 PII IS 0.741

N = 100

* p < 10

** p < .05

*** p < .01

EIS--External Information Support

PSS--Problem Solving Style

IIS--Internal Information Support

PII--Personal Involvement in the Innovation

() Negative relationships

IS--Informational Support

Table 2: Regression Analyses (Interaction)

Regression Dependent Independent F-statistic
 Variable Variable

Analysis 4 PII IS, ES 2.166 **
Analysis 5 PII (IS x ES) (1.792) *

N = 100
* p < .10
** p < .05
*** p < .01

PII--Personal Involvement in the Innovation
IS--Informational Support
ES--Emotional Support

() Negative relationships