How emotional intelligence and spirituality impact job survivors in a post-M&A work environment.

Harrison-Walker, L. Jean

INTRODUCTION

When measured by either the number of incidents or their dollar value, corporate merger and acquisition (M&A) activity has increased significantly in the last 15 years (Gemignani, 2001; Pryor, 2001). For example, Pryor (2001) found that total worldwide activity increased from $142 billion in 1985 to almost $2 trillion in 1999. Similarly, the total volume of mergers and acquisitions rose an average of 20.8 percent for the same time period. More than $520 billion in U.S. merger and acquisition activity occurred in the third quarter of 2000 (Gemignani, 2001).

Contrary to the expectations of M&A corporate partners, merger and acquisition activity does not appear to have a positive impact on shareholder value. A study by KPMG that looked at 700 of the most expensive deals from 1996 to 1998 found more than half resulted in reduced shareholder value, while another 30 percent added no discernible value. Much of the current literature that examines the aftermath of M&As suggests that people issues are the root cause of low performance following M&A (see Noer 1993, 1994).

Recently, it has been argued that employees who "survive" a corporate M&A progress through a multi-stage recovery process before regaining the psychological and emotional adjustment necessary for continued performance and productivity (Harrison-Walker and Alexander, 2002). Additionally, a model has been developed showing the impact of employee spirituality on the job survivor's progression through the recovery process (Harrison-Walker and Tombaugh, 2002). The purpose of this paper is to further examine the singular and combined effects of emotional intelligence and spirituality in the survivor recovery process. In brief, the results of the current research suggest that emotional intelligence and employee spirituality have a positive influence on the survivor's cognitive appraisal process and the use of coping strategies following M&A.

SURVIVING A CORPORATE M&A

The work environment following M&A may be radically altered and present significant challenges for those employees who have retained their positions. While many companies provide support for those who have lost their jobs in a corporate restructuring, few offer programs designed to help job survivors. Noer (1993) suggested that those left behind experience "survivor sickness," a "generic term that describes a set of attitudes, feelings and perceptions that occur in employees who remain in organizational systems following involuntary employee reductions." The sickness arises because these individuals feel violated (Moore, 1994) and as a result experience anger, depression, fear, distrust, and guilt (Brockner, 1986; Noer, 1993; Pritchett, 1985). The overall effect is diminished productivity, which may leave the company worse off than before the M&A (Noer, 1994).

Bourantas and Nicandrou (1998) argued that the cognitive and emotional reactions of surviving employees are similar to those experienced during the bereavement process. Using the experience of bereavement as an analogy, Harrison-Walker and Alexander (2002) conceptualized the survivor experience as a multi-stage "recovery process" through which individuals pass, rather than as a syndrome (defined as a group of related symptoms) (Marks, 1988; Marks and Mirvis, 1986) or sickness (Noer 1993) that must be "cured". According to Harrison-Walker and Alexander (2002), this transformational recovery process has seven identifiable stages, including: (1) insecurity; workers feel anxiety regarding the significant changes in the work environment, (2) embarrassment; relationships become awkward as workers feel shame and embarrassment over retaining their positions while others are terminated, (3) anger; workers feel anger and resentment toward the organization for taking these disruptive actions, (4) guilt; concerned that they share some responsibility for what has happened, (5) searching; workers seek logical explanations for the changes, and to understand their new roles and responsibilities, (6) surrender; with sadness, workers accept the "death" of their old organization, and (7) growth; a sense of security is restored as workers adapt to the new work environment and experience personal and professional growth.

PERCEIVED STRESS, COGNITIVE APPRAISAL, AND THE COPING PROCESS

Viewing the experience of a corporate M&A as a potentially life-altering event, it is helpful to examine the literature on stress, cognitive appraisal, and coping to better understand the perspective of the job survivor.

Cognitive Appraisal

Seminal work by Lazarus and Folkman (1984) identified cognitive appraisal as the act of attributing meaning to environmental events. Certain events are perceived as stressful because of the meaning attributed to them. An individual's sense of vulnerability increases as his/her perceived resistance to environmental threats (e.g., perceptions of stressors) decreases. Lazarus and Folkman (1984) argued that a person's commitments (motivation to achieve valued goals) and beliefs (cognitive schema regarding what one believes to be true about the world and his/her place in it) are the major components of cognitive appraisal.

Coping, the other critical process involved in stressful encounters, was defined by Lazarus and Folkman (1984, p.141) as "... cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific external and/or internal demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person." The two major coping strategies include emotion-focused coping and problem-focused coping. Emotion-focused coping refers to an individual's ability to regulate distressing emotions in response to the stressful situation. Forms of emotion-focused coping are often cognitive or behavioral strategies aimed at reducing feelings of distress, including avoidance, distancing, cognitive reappraisal, and selective attention.

Problem-focused coping highlights attempts to reconcile or change the source of the distress. Problem-focused coping strategies may be oriented outward, in attempts to directly or indirectly manage the source of the stress (e.g., change in policies or procedures). Alternatively, an individual may use internal problem-focused strategies that are oriented toward motivational or cognitive changes (such as reducing ego involvement, decreasing levels of aspiration, or learning new skills) that would allow for a beneficial cognitive reappraisal of the stressful situation. Research shows that most people use both emotion-focused and problem-focused coping strategies (Folkman and Lazarus, 1980, 1985).

THE ROLE OF SPIRITUALITY

Prior to discussing the relationship of spirituality with cognitive appraisal and coping, it seems useful to first draw a distinction between spirituality and religion. Spirituality and religion are complex and multidimensional concepts. Religion typically involves a sense of transcendence, a search for the divine or sacred, and the expression of these belief systems through the practices of an organized group or institution (Corbett, 1990; Mahrer, 1996). Religion often connotes some form of hierarchical authority in a faith-based community replete with traditions, standardized teachings and practices, and rituals (Emmons, 1999; Pargament, 1997).

The concept of spirituality often includes the basic beliefs associated with religion, e.g. a search for the ultimate, sacred or divine that transcends the physical self (Emmons, 1999). However, spirituality does not depend upon a group or institutional context and may include personal, subjective experiences not necessarily associated with traditional religious institutions and their traditions or practices (Bruce, 1996; Marty, 1998; Pargament, 1997; Roof, 1993). Spilka (1993) identified three general categories of spirituality, including theological spirituality (oriented toward God or a Higher Power), world-oriented spirituality (emphasizing one's relationship with ecology or nature), and humanistic spirituality (stressing human achievement or potential). Thus, for some people, foregoing the traditions and practices of an institutionalized religion and searching for a sense of purpose, meaning, and fulfillment by engaging in yoga or meditation, nature walks, or gardening, could constitute subjective spiritual experiences.

While the emphasis may vary across individuals, both religion and spirituality generally focus on a person's subjective relationship with a God or Higher Power, a sense of transcendence and connectedness, and/or the search for meaning and purpose in life. People often make little or no distinction between the concepts of religiousness and spirituality, choosing instead to describe themselves as both religious and spiritual (Pargament, 1997; Zinnbauer, Pargament and Scott, 1999). Similar to other researchers (see e.g., Fabricatore, Handal and Fenzel, 2000), the current research uses the general concept of "personal spirituality" to describe an individual's overall religious and spiritual belief system and practices, and their integration into daily life.

SPIRITUALITY, COGNITIVE APPRAISAL, AND COPING IN THE EXPERIENCE OF LIFE CRISES

An abundance of literature shows that people, when struggling to find understanding and purpose in life events or cope with problems, turn to their religious and spiritual beliefs. Strong evidence suggests that religion and spirituality play an important role in moderating the negative effects of perceived stress on various psychological and behavioral outcomes regardless of the source of the stress (Belavich, 1995; Hathaway and Pargament, 1992; Kim, 2002; Pargament, 1990, 1997). For example, Pargament (1997) reviewed a relatively large body of literature showing that various religious variables have a positive impact on psychological and emotional adjustment for individuals coping with such life events as death of a loved one, natural disasters, chronic illness, and acts of terrorism. Spilka, Shaver and Kirpatrick (1985) suggested that religion and spirituality enhance coping with stress by providing the person with a greater sense of control, self-esteem, and sense of meaning in life. Research further demonstrates that positive spiritual identity is related to healthier lifestyles, helps people cope more efficiently on an interpersonal, emotional and spiritual level (Bergin, et al., 1994; Richards and Potts, 1995), and is predictive of positive aspects of mental health, such as individual subjective well-being (see Diener, Suh, Lucas and Smith, 1999 for a review). Fabricatore, Handal, and Fenzel (2000) suggested that individuals with a stronger sense of spirituality are able to maintain a more positive sense of overall satisfaction with life when faced with daily and life stressors.

A number of studies have discussed spirituality, cognitive appraisal and coping. Pargament (1996) asserted that a person could use his or her religious or spiritual beliefs to "reframe" a stressful situation in an attempt to find purpose and meaning. Richards, Acree and Folkman (1999) found that a study group higher in spiritual development reported greater "positive reappraisal" and coping. Individuals may use their existing cognitive schema (i.e., their religious or spiritual beliefs) to more easily assimilate a traumatic event (Marrone 1999). Such assimilation strategies help individuals find ways of explaining, understanding and minimizing their loss (Marrone, 1999).

Those without well-developed spiritual or religious beliefs may experience longer periods of emotional and cognitive upheaval while new schemas are developed. That is, it may take longer and considerably more effort for such individuals to find meaning and purpose in the traumatic loss as well as their own lives.

EMOTIONAL CRISES AS A CATALYST FOR SPIRITUAL DEVELOPMENT

Some researchers have suggested that a significant life crisis can actually serve as a catalyst for personal spiritual development. Balk (1999) argued, for example, that bereavement, as a life crisis, can trigger spiritual change because the crisis (a) allows for sufficient time for reflection, (b) permanently impacts the life of the individual, and (c) creates a psychological imbalance that resists being quickly stabilized. Marrone (1999, p.498) described the "psychospiritual transformation" phase of reaction to loss as "a profound, growth-oriented spiritual/existential transformation that fundamentally changes our assumptions beliefs, and attitudes about life, death, love, compassion and God." Similarly, others argued that spiritual development occurs when an individual is forced to examine, assess and reconstruct his or her values and beliefs (Butman, 1990). Those involved in a life crisis must consider the meaning of the event and attempt to comprehend its personal significance (Moos and Schaefer, 1986).

EMPLOYEE SPIRITUALITY AND THE SURVIVOR RECOVERY PROCESS

Harrison-Walker and Tombaugh (2002) presented a conceptual model that suggests employee spirituality can impact the survivor recovery process following corporate M&A. The model identifies the radically altered job environment (e.g., changes in job roles and responsibilities, reporting relationships, policies and procedures, culture, etc.) following the announcement of a corporate M&A as the precipitating traumatic event. Once the layoff announcements are made, surviving employees begin and progress through the stages of the recovery process (Harrison-Walker and Alexander 2002). Emerging from the recovery process, surviving workers show greater psychological and emotional adjustment to the altered environment, with an overall improvement in performance and productivity.

An employee's spirituality may impact his/her progression through the recovery process in three ways. First, experiencing the organizational restructuring associated with M&A serves as a catalyst for spiritual development. The altered job environment following the M&A meets the three criteria suggested by Balk (1999) for the type of "significant life crisis" that can promote spiritual development in that the employee would (a) have time for personal reflection, (b) be permanently impacted by the event, and (c) experience a severe psychological upheaval. Thus, after the M&A event, the employee may begin to consider previously ignored "spiritual" explanations in a search for the reason and meaning of the experience. Second, the employee's sense of spirituality impacts his/her cognitive appraisal process. As previously noted, individuals with stronger spirituality tend to be able to adjust to and recover from significant life events more quickly than others (e.g., Hathaway and Pargament, 1992; Kim, 2002; Pargament 1990, 1997; Spilka, Shaver and Kirpatrick, 1985). Their spiritual commitments and beliefs allow them to more readily restructure or cognitively assimilate what has happened to them, finding meaning and purpose in traumatic life events. Third, directly related to an individual's spirituality and cognitive appraisal of a situation, is their adoption of coping strategies to deal with the event aftermath (e.g., Marrone, 1999; Pargament, 1996; Richards, Acree and Folkman, 1999). Employees high in spirituality, able to more effectively find meaning and purpose in what has happened, will be able to use more positive problem-focused and emotion-focused coping strategies when attempting to adjust to the post-M&A work environment. Positive problem-focused coping strategies, for example, deal with the person's ability to identify various problem sources and plan for appropriate action. Adopting such strategies allows the employee to assert self-control, assume responsibility, maintain a safe emotional distance when appropriate, and seek social support (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984). Effective use of coping strategies aids the job survivor in progressing through the stages of the survivor recovery process.

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

Based on work by Gardner (1993) and popularized more recently by the writings of Goleman (e.g., Goleman, 1995, 1998a, 1998b, 2000, and Goleman, et.al., 2001), the concept of emotional intelligence ("EI") has come to the forefront as a potential predictor of personal and professional success. While no single theoretical definition of emotional intelligence exists in the literature, much of the current research is based on the work of Salovey and Mayer and their colleagues (e.g., Mayer and Salovey, 1997; Salovey and Mayer, 1990; Salovey, Mayer, Goldman, Turvey, and Palfai, 1995). Salovey and Mayer (1990) first used the term "emotional intelligence" and later (Mayer and Salovey, 1997, p.10) defined EI as "the ability to perceive accurately, appraise, and express emotion; the ability to access and/or generate feelings when they facilitate thought; the ability to understand emotion and emotional knowledge; and the ability to regulate emotions to promote emotional and intellectual growth."

Examination of the works of Salovey and Mayer (1990), Mayer and Salovey (1997), Goleman (1995, 1998b), and Davies, Stankov and Roberts (1998), suggests a multi-dimensional, hierarchical view of emotional intelligence that includes 4 primary components:

(1) Perception, appraisal and expression--refers to the ability to know one's own emotions and express emotional needs to others. This component further refers to one's ability to sense the emotions of others and discern the sincerity or honesty of those emotions.

(2) Assimilation and facilitation of thinking--the ability to use emotions in functional ways. In using emotions to facilitate thinking, the individual understands why emotions may or may not be reasonable in particular circumstances. These emotions may then be used to direct or focus one's attention and anticipate further emotional outcomes associated with specific decisions.

(3) Understanding and knowledge about emotions--the ability to understand often complex and evolving emotional states. People vary in their understanding of the various antecedents and consequences of emotions and moods, and the impact of different events, people and situations on felt and expressed emotions. Further, those high in this dimension of EI tend to be more cognizant of the complexity and transitional nature of emotions in themselves and others. That is, they may understand how a person may feel apparently contradictory emotions simultaneously (e.g., loyalty and betrayal), or progress from one emotional state to another.

(4) Regulation and management of emotions. Research shows that people tend to strive toward positive moods and alleviate negative ones (e.g., Clark and Isen, 1982; Mayer, Salovey, Gomberg-Kaufman, and Blainey, 1991; Morris and Reilly, 1987). This dimension of emotional intelligence refers to the ability to reflect on one's emotions and moods and successfully manage them. For example, it may be useful for an individual to disconnect, or "let go" of an emotion if that emotion is actually a hindrance in a particular situation. Additionally, this ability extends to the management of the moods and emotions of others. A successful leader will be able to "read" the emotional state of his/her followers and manage accordingly.

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AS A COPING RESOURCE

In reviewing the literature on stress, appraisal and coping, it becomes clear that EI is related to the coping process. More specifically, EI appears to have a positive impact on emotion-focused coping as well as problem-focused coping.

Emotional Intelligence and Emotion-Focused Coping

Lazarus and Folkman (1984, p.150) suggested that emotional coping consists of cognitive and/or behavioral strategies directed at "regulating emotional response to the problem". It seems that individuals high in EI would have an advantage in this process. Regulating and managing emotions requires individuals to (1) be aware of their own emotions, (2) use those emotions to facilitate thinking and decision-making and (3) grasp the potential consequences of emotional expression. This captures the four hierarchical dimensions of EI: perception, appraisal and expression, assimilation and facilitation of thinking, understanding and knowledge about emotions, and the regulation and management of emotions. Thus, the four components of EI are prerequisites for emotional coping.

Other researchers provide further support for the positive impact of EI on emotional coping. For example, Jordan, Ashkanasy and Hartel (2002, p.365), in discussing the importance of emotional management, suggested that "the first step in developing positive emotion-focused coping strategies is for the employee to assess the authenticity of his or her felt emotion and then decide if the emotional reaction is reasonable under the circumstances."

Emotional Intelligence and Problem-Focused Coping

Emotional intelligence also appears to impact problem-focused coping. As previously noted, problem-focused coping may be directed at the environment or at the self. Outward directed strategies usually require the person to adopt problem solving techniques, including attempts to identify the source of distress, generate alternative solutions, select and implement the best solution, and review outcomes. These strategies do not occur in an emotional vacuum, and emotions can have a profound impact on a person's cognitions and behaviors (Ashforth and Humphrey, 1995; Jordan, Ashkanasy and Hartel, 2002). Indeed, individuals with higher levels of emotional intelligence are likely to be more successful in their problem-solving attempts, especially to the extent they require the input or compliance of others.

Similarly, problem-focused strategies that are directed inward at the self will also be influenced by emotional intelligence. These attempts are typically directed toward some motivational or cognitive change. They often involve altering one's aspirations, goals, ego involvement, perceived wants or needs, or sense of gratification. The person who is aware of and understands the complexities of his/her emotions (that is, has a higher sense of emotional intelligence) is more likely to engage in successful problem-focused coping strategies.

The Mediating Role of Personal Factors

While EI has a direct impact on coping strategies, it may also indirectly affect coping via personal factors. For example, Lazarus and Folkman (1984) suggested that feelings of hope and optimism, social skills, and perceived social support have a positive impact on a person's coping strategies. As previously noted, EI is central to the concept of empathy, which is the foundation for the development of functional social support systems and positive interpersonal relationships. Further, EI promotes positive moods and enhances cognitive processes associated with creativity, information processing and problem solving.

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND SPIRITUALITY

Several authors have noted the relationship between EI and spirituality. Orr (2001), for example, argued that EI directly facilitates individual spiritual development. Meyer (1997) explained that as we mature emotionally we become better equipped to develop spiritually, and our relationship with God encourages both emotional and spiritual wholeness. Similarly, Vernick (2000) argued that a sense of emotional self-awareness and self-regulation were the starting points for any meaningful and substantive personal or spiritual growth.

As previously noted, spirituality extends beyond the boundaries of institutionalized religion to include non-traditional or secular beliefs and practices (Zinnbauer, et al., 1997). Less than one-third of the respondents in a study by Mahoney and Garci (1999), for example, stated that spirituality involves a belief in God. Rather, they suggested the concept includes forgiveness, compassion, a sense of connectedness with humanity, and meaning and purpose in life. Central themes often included in this "broad" definition of spirituality (e.g., a sense of transcendence, wholeness, connectedness) have been related to emotional intelligence. Scott Peck, psychiatrist and author of popular inspirational books such as The Road Less Traveled, suggested, "human holiness has something to do with human wholeness" (Peck, 1995, p. 75), and asserted that the inability to solve problems and manage our emotions (i.e., characteristics of emotional intelligence) were barriers to mental, emotional, and spiritual development. Others note that definitions of spirituality often include emotions such as love and compassion, and suggest that increased spiritual development is associated with greater emotional self-awareness and the capacity for empathy (Tischler, Biberman and McKeage, 2002). Finally, Averill (2002) presented data showing that emotional creativity, a concept closely related to EI, correlated with both religious and secular characteristics of spiritual experiences, including connectedness and sense of meaning.

A search of the literature revealed only a single quantitative study relating EI and spirituality. Anderson (2001) reported a statistically significant correlation between EI and spirituality. In a discussion of Dabrowski's theory of emotional development (1964, 1967), Anderson noted that one result of emotional maturity was spiritual development. The more emotionally mature an individual, the greater their spiritual sense of connectedness among humanity and commitment to transcendent universal values.

A MODEL OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE, EMPLOYEE SPIRITUALITY, AND SURVIVOR RECOVERY

The model presented in Figure 1 shows the complexity of the survivor recovery process by highlighting the roles of both spirituality and emotional intelligence, as well as the moderating effect of personal factors. The conceptual model begins with the corporate M&A, a traumatic, potentially life-altering event. Spirituality allows M&A survivors to more effectively assimilate the meaning and purpose of the event (through cognitive appraisal) and thereby use positive problem-based and emotion-based coping strategies as they progress through the recovery process.

P1: Employee spirituality will have a positive impact on the survivor's cognitive appraisal process.

P2: Employee spirituality will have a positive indirect impact on the survivor's emotion-focused and problem-focused coping strategies through its effect on cognitive appraisal.

Emotional intelligence will also influence the employee's cognitive appraisal process in the post-M&A organizational environment. The appraisal process is essentially one of perception, whereby the person assimilates relevant information and evaluates the significance of what is happening for his/her well-being. The appraisal, while hopefully realistic and grounded in objective events, is based on the individual's subjective interpretation of those events, and is easily influenced by both personal and situational factors (e.g., personal commitments and beliefs, personality factors, environmental ambiguity, event predictability). The appraisal process typically requires the person to make decisions or judgments regarding the nature of the stressful event and the viability of various coping options.

[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]

As previously noted, EI may influence cognitions and allow a person to use emotions in functional ways. For example, emotions can help focus attention and prioritize among competing stimuli (Frigda, 1988; George and Brief, 1996). Similarly, emotions can play a part in selecting alternative options, making decisions, and anticipating future emotional states (Damasio, 1994). Emotions can also influence perspective, planning, and perceptions of future success (Forgas, Bower, and Moylan, 1990; Salovey and Mayer, 1990). Given the impact of emotions on various cognitive processes and decision-making, it is reasonable to suggest that EI will have a positive impact on the employee's cognitive appraisal process. More specifically, employees higher in EI will make more realistic appraisals in the potentially complex post-M&A work environment.

P3: Emotional intelligence will have a positive impact on the employee's cognitive appraisal process.

Following cognitive appraisal of the situation, employees will typically adopt both emotion-focused and problem-focused coping strategies in an attempt to more effectively deal with the potential stress of the work environment. Jordan, Ashkanasy and Hartel (2002) suggested that EI will influence an employee's coping behaviors and impact the emotional consequences of job insecurity. Similarly, as indicated in Figure 1, the coping strategies used by job survivors will be directly impacted by their emotional intelligence. That is, survivors high in EI will adopt more positive, realistic and successful strategies than low intelligence survivors.

P4: Emotional intelligence will directly influence both emotion-focused and problem-focused coping strategies used by job survivors.

Emotional intelligence can also have an indirect impact on the coping strategies used by job survivors via personal factors. The ability to manage one's own emotions, and better understand and deal with the emotions of others, allows for more effective functioning in the interpersonal arena. Various factors related to EI, such as empathy, social skills, and social support networks allow high emotional intelligence survivors to adopt more positive, realistic and successful strategies than low intelligence survivors. With higher EI an individual can more easily attend to and process relevant information and cues, and develop and use social skills, the capacity for empathy, and social support networks. These factors influence the job survivor as he/she attempts to develop, select and implement possible coping strategies.

P5: Emotional intelligence will indirectly influence both emotion-focused and problem-focused coping strategies used by job survivors by a positive impact on personal factors

A single empirical study provides some support for a correlational relationship between spirituality and emotional intelligence (Anderson, 2001). Other authors support such a relationship, suggesting that as we mature emotionally (developing greater emotional intelligence) we experience greater spiritual growth (Meyer, 1997; Orr, 2001; Vernick, 2001).

P6: Emotional intelligence will have a positive impact on employee spirituality

MANAGERIAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL IMPLICATIONS

Several conclusions regarding corporate M&A activity seem evident: 1) there has been a significant increase in the number of M&As, and there is every reason to believe this activity will continue, 2) the performance and productivity of employees surviving M&A activity is critical for the organization's continued operation and long term growth, and 3) following M&A activity, management must take a more active role in assisting surviving employees' adjustment to the altered work environment. The spirituality, emotional intelligence, and cognitive appraisal process of job survivors are three key factors important to their psychological and emotional adjustment after M&A activity. Fortunately, evidence suggests that these key elements are amenable to management intervention.

Developing Employee Spirituality

Clearly, spiritual issues are relevant in mainstream society. Thompson (2000) noted that books on spirituality continue to top bestseller lists, and personalities such as Oprah Winfrey help millions of television viewers 'remember their spirit' by interviewing people who strive to connect their spirituality with their marriages, work, and communities. It is not difficult to find magazines, web sites, conferences and consultants focusing on life success and the impact of spiritual issues.

The issue of spirituality is also becoming increasingly accepted as relevant in the workplace (Giacalone and Jurkiewicz, 2003; Johnson, 2004; Morgan, 2004; Salopek, 2004). Howard (2002, p.238) asserted that, "writings in the spirituality at work area suggest that work should contribute to people's spiritual lives; and their spiritual lives should contribute to their work." Numerous authors have noted the significant increase in the number of publications that focus on employee spirituality as a central issue in employee and organizational development (Ashmos and Duchon, 2000; Biberman and Whitty, 2000; Cavanaugh, 1999; Conger, 1994; Craigie, 1999; Howard 2002; King and Nicol, 1999). Several authors have presented quantitative data indicating the relevance of spirituality as an organizational behavior variable. For example, in their recent text, A Spiritual Audit of Corporate America, researchers Ian Mitroff and Elizabeth Denton (1999) presented data that showed managers believe spirituality is an appropriate topic for the workplace, and that organizations described as "spiritual" were also rated as showing greater warmth, flexibility, caring and ethics. Bruce (2000) presented data showing that almost half of the employees surveyed indicated their work was an important part of their spiritual path. Trott 's (1996) data showed that employee spirituality was related to greater commitment to the organization, increased individual self-efficacy, and a greater willingness to cooperate, grow, learn, and adapt to challenges.

In organizations, management may help employees develop their sense of spirituality. Programs can be designed to increase the awareness of spiritual issues and their relevance to the workplace (Ashforth and Pratt, 2003). These programs may include opportunities to share spiritual values (e.g., spiritual teambuilding), spiritual leadership training, and structured activities related to spiritual experiences (e.g., yoga and meditation classes, prayer groups, guest speakers, and community involvement). John Harben, a client director at change management consultants Smythe Dorward Lambert, is experimenting with monastic models to induce a more reflective atmosphere in the workplace, such as coffee breaks in a quiet room where someone reads books with a spiritual dimension--perhaps poetry--much as monks do at mealtimes (Kennedy, 2002). According to Harben, busy, open-plan offices should be complemented by a quiet haven where people can go just to think and contemplate (Kennedy 2002).

Those in leadership positions can exhibit spiritual leadership that "encourages people to ask questions, develop their capabilities and discernment, align themselves to a higher vision, and develop a sense of their own personal destiny" (Howard, 2002, p.237). For example, during his tenure as CEO of Memorial Hermann Healthcare System in Houston, Texas, Dan Wolford nurtured spirituality within his organization by implementing the Spiritual Leadership Institute. Stephen Bynum, Dean of the Institute, notes that "when people realize and appreciate their spiritual depth, their capacity to become leaders is more profound, they become more productive, and they have a more positive impact on others--overall they create better working environments." (Wolf, 2004, p. 23). Tom's of Maine invites diverse spiritual leaders to speak to employees (Brandt, 1996), while Taco Bell and Pizza Hut have chaplains on staff to help employees with their spiritual concerns (Conlin, 1999). Similarly, Monsanto Corporation has brought in experts to instruct managers on Buddhist practices (Tworkov, 2001), and employees at World Bank hold informal weekly meetings to discuss spiritual issues and work (Galen and West, 1995).

Providing programs designed to promote spirituality in the workplace will only be somewhat effective if implemented immediately following the announcement of a merger or acquisition. A far greater impact is likely if such programs are in place long before any corporate upheaval. That is, if employees are high in spirituality before any significant restructuring is announced, they will be in a better position to draw upon existing religious or spiritual beliefs and schema to "reframe" and assimilate the trauma associated with the event (Marrone 1999; Pargament 1996), if and when it does occur. Moreover, organizations should realize that non-economic considerations are important when considering the types of strategic decisions that surround M&As (Bagley and Page, 1999; Kiefer, 2002; Pfeffer, 2003). "People factors," such as employee spirituality and emotional intelligence, may impact post-M&A employee adjustment and productivity, and are relevant in profitability projections and M&A decisions. By developing and periodically assessing noneconomic people factors, management could more readily anticipate the ability of the workforce to "rebound" from the upheavals common to a post-M&A environment. For example, as the model presented here predicts, a spiritually disengaged workforce could adversely impact near-term quality, productivity, and profitability.

Developing Employee Emotional Intelligence

As asserted earlier in this paper, EI has a positive impact on the ability of job survivors to proceed through the survivor recovery process. Goleman (1998a) suggested that people high in EI remain optimistic and that self-regulation combines with achievement motivation to overcome the frustration or depression that may come after a setback. Interestingly, he specifically discusses the effect of EI in terms of dealing with the ambiguity and change that result from an experience such as a corporate M&A:

People who have mastered their emotions are able to roll with the changes. When a new change program is announced, they don't panic. Instead, they are able to suspend judgment, seek out information, and listen to executives explain the new program. As the initiative moves forward, they are able to move with it. Sometimes they even lead the way. (Goleman 1998a, p.98)

Similar to the issue of employee spirituality, it is important to establish that EI can be developed. While scientific inquiry points to a genetic component to EI, psychological and developmental research clearly demonstrate that EI can be learned (Goleman, 1998b). As many as 700 school districts across the country have instituted programs involving emotional learning exercises (Ratnesar, 1997). At the university level, Tucker, et al. (2000) argue that business schools should include courses on EI in their curricula, and provide an outline for designing and delivering such courses.

Several authors have discussed the design, implementation, and potential effectiveness of training programs focusing on individual EI (see, e.g., Goleman, 1995, 1998b; Mayer and Salovey, 1997; Salovey and Mayer, 1990). There seems to be general agreement with the conclusion of Cherniss and Goleman (1998, p.4), who asserted that, "a growing body of research on emotional learning and behavior change suggests it is possible to help people of any age become more emotionally intelligent at work." They offered guidelines for the successful implementation of EI training in work settings, including issues related to preparation, training, transfer and maintenance, and program evaluation.

Dulewicz and Higgs (2004) presented statistical evidence that supported the developmental nature of several of the components of EI, citing an improvement in survey scores following EI training. Sala (2001) provided preliminary evidence that participation in a workshop designed to increase EI resulted in a significant increase in assessment scores for two groups of managers and employees. Similarly, Cherniss and Caplan (2001) documented the gains in employee productivity attributed to a training program on EI at a large life insurance organization. They recommended that any attempt to implement EI training in organizations follow certain guidelines, including linking the program to specific business needs, securing the support of top management, and monitoring the instructional quality of the program

Ashkanasy and Daus (2002, p.82), in discussing issues related to training on EI, suggested they are "cautiously optimistic and perceive evidence that such training may in the end prove beneficial." Further, they identified specific techniques to enhance the EI of employees, including assessing the emotional impact of specific jobs, creating a positive emotional climate by modeling appropriate behaviors, rewarding positive emotional attitudes, and training on emotional expression. Druskat and Wolff (2001) argued that teams could be trained to develop their collective emotional intelligence, improving team performance beyond the levels of individuals who may be high in EI. Similarly, Jordan (2204) and Jordan, et al. (2002) showed that coaching on EI could improve the performance of certain teams. Given the proposed impact of EI on spirituality, any efforts by management to promote EI should also have an indirect, positive effect on employee spirituality.

Influencing Employee Cognitive Appraisal

As noted previously, managers can indirectly influence cognitive appraisal through the development of programs designed to enhance spirituality. However, managers may also impact cognitive appraisal directly. Cognitive appraisal is the act of attributing meaning to environmental events. Events that have the potential to become stressors to a person tend to do so because of the meaning attributed to them. Lazarus and Folkman (1984) suggested that the major components of cognitive appraisal are (1) a person's beliefs (cognitive schema regarding what one believes to be true about the world and his/her place in it) and (2) a person's commitments (motivation to achieve valued goals).

To directly influence an employee's appraisal process, managers should take steps designed to ensure that employees attribute a positive meaning to the corporate restructuring. Shortly after a merger or acquisition is announced, the primary concern of job survivors is whether or not they have a future with the company. Immediately following the announcement, management should assure survivors that their jobs are secure and that all layoff decisions related to the M&A are complete. To further cast a positive light, management should take time to discuss the rationale behind the specific changes being made and demonstrate the level of competence with which the decisions were made (Harrison-Walker and Alexander, 2002).

A second step in influencing cognitive appraisal is to stimulate employee motivation to achieve valued goals. To build employee commitment to the new organizational structure, management should highlight the many long-term benefits of the M&A. The self-esteem and confidence of survivors can be bolstered by rewarding or otherwise reinforcing behaviors that demonstrate acceptance of the new organization and structure.

RESEARCH IMPLICATIONS

In considering the singular and combined effects of emotional intelligence and spirituality in the survivor recovery process, a number of paths between and among the various factors have been identified in Figure 1 based on the existing literature. However, other paths not included herein could be examined in future research with respect to their role in the survivor recovery process. For example, one might consider the impact, if any, of the personal factors on the two factors or cognitive appraisals (e.g., personal commitments and beliefs). A second area of future research would be the inclusion of additional factors into the model. Additional factors might include, for example, external variables such as event predictability given industry characteristics or trends, and environmental ambiguity given more general business and environmental trends. Future research into these and other areas is indicated to more thoroughly understand (1) how job survivors deal with a potential M&A and (2) what companies can do to fortify their workforce when a M&A is anticipated. Such research is critical to long term organizational growth following M&A.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The author wishes to thank Dr. Jay Tombaugh, University of Houston Clear Lake, for contributing ideas in framing the conceptual model.

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L. Jean Harrison-Walker, University of Houston--Clear Lake