Relationships between frequency of use of career management practices and employee attitudes, intention to turnover, and job search behavior.

Schnake, Mel E. ; Williams, Robert J. ; William, Fredenberger 等

ABSTRACT

A questionnaire measuring the frequency in which employees used various career management practices, as well as employee attitudes and behaviors was administered to employees in divisions of a southern state's government departments of revenue, auditing and education. Results show that frequency of use of career management practices was positively related to job satisfaction and organizational commitment, and negatively related to perceived job stress and job insecurity. Further frequency of use of career management practices was significantly and inversely associated with turnover preparation activities.

INTRODUCTION

There is substantial evidence of a link between human resource management practices and important work related outcomes such as employee attitudes and behavior and firm financial performance. However, one set of human resource management practices has not been fully examined in this line of research. Few organizational career management practices (e.g., career counseling, training, mentoring, career paths, career planning workshops) have been examined for their relationships with employee attitudes and behaviors (Eby, Allen & Brinley, in press).

Researchers have linked a number of human resource management practices to employee attitudes and behaviors, as well as to organizational performance (Boudreau, 1991; Jones & Write, 1992; Huselid, 1995; Collins & Clark, 2003; Barte, 2004). Human resource management practices may improve organizational performance through employee attitudes and behaviors by providing a qualified pool of applicants, improving employee knowledge and skills, increasing employee motivation and organizational commitment, and reducing employee absenteeism and turnover. Jackson and Schuler (1995) argue that human resource management practices are one means to develop and sustain a firm's competitive advantage.

A number of studies have found HR practices (e.g., training, performance appraisal, compensation, and incentives) are connected to various employee attitudes and behaviors and to organizational performance. Olgilvie (1987) produced evidence that employee perceptions of the organization's human resource practices were correlated to organizational commitment. Kinicki, Carson and Bohlander's (1992) results suggest that employee perceptions of their organization's human resource management practices (e.g., employee training, advancement opportunities, and hiring qualified employees) were positively correlated with several employee attitudes including job satisfaction, pride in working for the company, and attitude toward providing good customer service).

Lambert (2000) found the perceived utility of work-life benefits was positively correlated to organizational citizenship behavior. Huselid (1995) produced evidence that combinations of human resource management practices (called "HR bundles") were positively associated with lower employee turnover, greater productivity, and higher firm financial performance. Terpstra and Rozelle (1993) produced a positive relationship between the extensiveness of recruiting, selection test validation, and the use of formal selection procedures and organizational profitability. A similar positive link was found by Russell, Terborg and Powers (1985) between employee training programs and firm profitability.

Firm profitability has also been linked to the use of formal performance appraisal systems (Borman, 1991), and to linking performance appraisals with compensation (Gerhart & Milkovich, 1992). More recently, Bartel (2004) produced evidence in retail banking firms that employee satisfaction with the quality of performance evaluation, feedback, and recognition were all positively related to branch bank performance.

Career management is defined as "the process by which individuals develop insight into themselves and their environment, formulate career goals and strategies, and acquire feedback regarding career progress" (Greenhaus, Callahan & Godshalk, 2000, pp. 423-424). Career management practices are aimed at helping employees develop new skills or improve old ones, make sound job and career choices, and prepare them for higher levels of responsibility within the organization (Greenhaus, et al., 2000). Career management practices may also communicate to employees that the organization values employee contributions and is interested in helping them succeed.

Sturges, Guest, Conway and Davey (2002), in a longitudinal study of employees early in their careers found that high organizational commitment was related to the extent to which employees reported receiving organizational career management help, both formal (e.g., being taught things they needed to know, being given a personal development plan) and informal help (e.g., being given career advice, being introduced to people who might help their career development). Low organizational commitment was correlated with career management activities aimed at furthering their career outside their current employer.

Eby, Allen and Brinley (2002) examined relationships between career management practices and career rated attitudes. A factor analysis of a list of sixteen career management practices (coded 0 = not provided, 1 = provided) resulted in five career management "bundles," which were labeled "Skill Assessment/Self Exploration," "Skill Development/Future Planning," "Information Services," "Formal External Training," and "Formal Internal Training." After controlling for organization size, industry and type of organization, Skill Development/Future Planning and Information Services was positively correlated, and External Training was negatively correlated, to satisfaction with promotions. Skill Development/Future Planning was negatively related to "job content plateauing" (i.e., job skills will become routine for the employee in the future). Finally, Formal External Training was positively associated with job content plateauing.

Eby, Allen & Brimley (in press) provide evidence that career management practices that focus on future strategic planning within the organization (e.g., succession planning, outplacement) were connected to greater satisfaction with the promotion process and lower perceptions of job content plateauing. Thus, career management practices may influence many of the same employee attitudes and behaviors as do more general human resource management practices.

THEORETICAL BASE

Eby, Allen and Brimley (in press) suggest two theories which explain how career management practices affect employee attitudes and behaviors. Pfeffer's (1981) theory of symbolic action suggests that organizational practices can influence employee attitudes and behaviors through the messages they send to employees. Organizations that provide discretionary programs, such as career development programs, for employees may be interpreted by employees that the organization values their contributions and is concerned for their welfare.

Social exchange theory (Blau, 1964) also provides a partial explanation for how career management programs may affect employee attitudes and behaviors. Social exchange theory suggests that when one party provides a benefit to a second party, a sense of obligation is created which requires the recipient to reciprocate the benefit. Since career management practices are discretionary, employees may feel an obligation to reciprocate the organization for these benefits. This sense of obligation may translate into improved attitudes and behaviors.

Previous studies have assessed the relationships between employee attitudes and behaviors and the presence of career management practices. However, the mere presence of a career management practice may not exert as much effect on employee attitudes and behaviors as the employees' actual use of these career management programs. The purpose of this research is to extend our understanding of the relationship between career management practices and employee attitudes and behavior by assessing relationships between the frequency with which employees have used these practices in the previous 12 months, and their job satisfaction, organizational commitment, perceived job stress, job security, intention to turnover, and actual job search behaviors.

Previous research has linked the availability of career management practices to job satisfaction (Eby, Allen & Brinley, 2002; in press), and organizational commitment (Sturges, Guest, Conway & Davey, 2002). We expect to find a similar pattern of relationships between the frequency of use of career management practices and these employee attitudes and behaviors. Other research has linked more general HRM practices with voluntary turnover (Shaw, Delery, Jenkins & Gupta, 1998; Terpstra & Rozelle, 1993) and organizational citizenship behavior (Lambert, 2000). While turnover intentions have long been related to actual turnover, there is substantial decay between turnover intent and actual turnover behavior. Therefore, we also included a measure of a more direct form of turnover behavior, frequency of job search behaviors (e.g., sending resume to a potential employer). In addition, we expect the use of career management practices to be associated with lower perceived stress and increased job security. Organizations which provide these voluntary programs for employees may be perceived as being less likely to lay off employees in whom they've made such an investment. Thus, symbolic action theory may be used to provide a rationale for including perceived stress and job security.

Several control variables were also included in the analysis. Since larger organizations may have greater resources to provide a more extensive array of career management practices, organizational size (total number of employees) will be included as a control variable. Employee age is also likely to be related to job satisfaction, as employees generally rise in the organization and receive greater rewards over time. Eby, Casper, Lockwood, Bordeaux & Brinley (2004) suggest that women may not be able to benefit as much as men from career management programs due to greater non-work demands. Thus, gender was also included as a control variable.

METHOD

Questionnaires were administered by managers within the state's central offices of the auditing department, revenue department, and department of education of a southern state government. Managers sent an email approximately a week in advance of questionnaire administration, advising the employees that a questionnaire assessing the departments "human resources practices" would be forthcoming. Approximately one week later, questionnaires were distributed to employees through each department's internal mail system. Questionnaires were returned to managers in the same manner. A highlighted sentence at the top of the questionnaire instructed respondents to not identify themselves in any way, and guaranteed their anonymity.

The average age of respondents was 36.61 years, and 67.6% were female. Average organizational tenure for the sample was 6.99 years, 70% were Caucasion, 22.2% were African American, and 5.2% were Hispanic. Thirty-three percent of the respondents had completed high school, 28.7% had one to two years of college, 29.4% had a bachelor's degree, and 5.8% had completed college work beyond a bachelor's degree.

The first section of the questionnaire asked respondents to rate the frequency they used 16 career management practices identified by Eby, Allen & Brinley (2002) within the last 12 months. Scale responses were 1 for never to 5 for regularly. The second section of the questionnaire contained a four-item job satisfaction questionnaire (e.g., "Generally speaking, I am very satisfied with this job," and "All things considered, I am quite happy with this job."), a five-item job stress questionnaire (e.g., "I work under a great deal of stress in this job," and "This job causes me to feel a lot of stress.:), and a four-item job security scale (e.g., "I am worried about my overall job security," and "I am concerned about losing my job.").

The third section of the questionnaire contained a 14 item organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) scale (e.g., "Helps others who have been absent," "Takes underserved breaks," and "Complains about insignificant things at work."). Most of these items came from the Fahr, Podsakoff and Organ (1990) OCB questionnaire.

The fourth section of the questionnaire contained nine items which measure affective organizational commitment (e.g., "I find that my values and the organization's values are very similar," "I really care about the fate of this organization," and "I am proud to tell others that I am part of this organization."), and 15 items which tap intention to turnover (e.g., "I am actively seeking an alternative job," "I often think about quitting my job," and "I am constantly searching for a better job.").

The fifth section of the questionnaire contained 13 items which tapped specific job search or turnover preparation behaviors (e.g., "I prepared/revised my resume," "I filled out a job application," and "I have sent my resume to potential employers."). Finally, typical demographic information (age, gender, educational level, and organization size) were collected. Gender was dummy coded (0 = male, 1 = female) for statistical analysis purposes.

Due to organizational limitations, all measures were collected at a single point in time. Thus, common method variance is a potential issue in interpreting the results (Podsakoff & Organ, 1986). Common method variance stems from a number of sources, including common sources and raters, implicit theories, social desirability, test item ambiguity, scale format, and item priming effects (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee & Podsakoff, 2003). Researchers disagree about the magnitude of the problem and the method of resolving it (Avolio, Yammarino & Bass, 1991; Kline, Sulsky & Rever-Moriyama, 2000; Lindell & Whitney, 2001).

The most common approach to assessing the magnitude of common method variance is Harmon's single-factor test, in which researchers load all the variables in their study into an exploratory factor analysis and examine the unrotated factor solution to determine the number of factors required to account for the variance in the variables (Anderson & Bateman, 1997). The underlying assumption is that if a substantial degree of common method variance exists, then (1) a single general factor will account for the majority of the variance, or (2) a single factor will emerge. The results of the Harmon Single Factor Test on the present study data revealed that the first factor explained only 27.25% of the variance. Sixteen factors had an eigenvalue greater than 1.0, and the cumulative variance explained by the sixteen factors was 79.71%.

A further, more traditional exploratory factor analysis was also performed on the data. The scale which asked respondents to rate the frequency with which they used career management practices was factor analyzed with each of the outcome scales in separate factor analyses. Traditional acceptable sample size to number of scale item ratios call for ratios of 10 to 1, or even 5 to 1. The sample size would not support including all outcome scales in a single factor analysis. Principal components extraction and varimax rotations were employed. Each outcome scale resulted in two factors (career management practice frequency and an outcome variable) and displayed relatively clean factor patterns after the varimax rotation. Thus, while there may be some level of common method variance in the data, there is evidence that it may not be substantial (Schriesheim, 1979). The Harmon single factor test showed that the first factor explained only 27.25% of the variance. In contrast, after sixteen factors were extracted, they explained 79.71% of the variance. In addition, based on the traditional exploratory factor analysis with varimax rotation, respondents clearly distinguished between the various scales and their ratings of the frequency in which they used career management practices.

In addition, several scale design techniques suggested by Podsakoff and Organ (1986) and Podsakoff, et al. (2003) were employed which may serve to reduce common method variance. We guaranteed respondent anonymity in the introduction to the questionnaire and reminded respondents that they were not being asked for any identifying information. The section that asked respondents to rate the frequency in which they used each technique appeared in the first section of the questionnaire and was clearly separated from the remaining sections. Each of the following sections had a separate instruction section which prepared the respondent for the nature of the questions which would appear in that section. This may serve to break the respondents' thought patterns from the subject of the previous section and focus their attention on the questions in the subsequent section.

Finally, Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee and Podsakoff (2003) and Cote and Buckly (1987) suggest that the extent of common method variance depends on the type of construct being measured. It may be particularly troublesome in single source studies which relate attitudes to attitudes, or attitudes to self-report personality, or attitudes and ratings of supervisor behaviors such as leadership effectiveness. We might, however, expect somewhat less common method variance between employee attitude measures and a simple report of the frequency in which they used a particular career management practice offered by their organization.

RESULTS

Scale characteristics, reliability estimates, and a correlation matrix appear in Table 1. All reliability estimates exceeded traditional standards.

An exploratory factor analysis of the career management practices scale did not support the use of "career bundles" as suggested by Eby, Allen and Brinley (in press). While three factors with eigenvalues greater than 1.0 emerged, the resulting factor structures were not interpretable and there were several items with cross-loadings. Most items either loaded on the first general factor, or split loaded. Therefore, a single, overall measure of frequency of career management practices use was used in the subsequent analysis. Responses to the 16 item career management practices scale were averaged for analysis.

The results of the regression analysis of the frequency of use of career management practices on employee attitudes and perceptions appear in Table 2. After controlling for the effects of age, gender, and organizational size, career management practices use frequency was significantly and positively correlated to job satisfaction and organizational commitment, and inversely correlated to job stress and job insecurity. Of the control variables, only gender was significantly and positively related to organizational commitment. Females reported higher organizational commitment than males.

The results of the regression analysis of the frequency of use of career management practices on OCB, turnover intent and job search are presented in Table 3. After controlling for the effects of age, gender, and organization size, the frequency of use of career management practices did not significantly contribute to explained variance in OCB. Only gender was significantly related to OCB, with females reporting higher levels of OCB than males.

Both age and gender were significantly and inversely associated with turnover intention. Females and older employees more frequently report lower levels of intention to turnover. Career management practice use did not contribute significantly to explained variance in turnover intent. Age was significantly and inversely related to turnover preparation, with older employees less likely to engage in turnover preparation behaviors. After controlling for the effects of age, gender, and organizational size, frequency of career management practices use was significantly and inversely related to turnover preparation.

DISCUSSION

Recent research has shown "bundles" of career management practices to be connected to career related attitudes such as satisfaction with promotions (Eby, Allen & Brinley, in press). However, these bundles were created based on a factor analysis of whether a particular career management practice was offered by the organization. While useful, a different perspective is whether the employees themselves actually use the career management programs being offered. The purpose of the present research is to examine the frequency in which employees actually used specific career management programs offered by their organizations in relation to work-related attitudes and behaviors or behavioral intentions.

The results suggest that, after controlling for employee age and gender and organizational size, frequency of use of career management practices was positively correlated to job satisfaction and organizational commitment, and inversely associated with perceived stress and job insecurity. Further, after controlling for employee age and gender and organizational size, the frequency of use of career management practices was inversely related to turnover preparation activities. No significant relationships were observed between the frequency of use of career management practices and organizational citizenship behavior or turnover intentions. It is interesting that use of career management practices would be significantly correlated with turnover preparation but not turnover intentions.

A limitation of the study is the possibility of common method variance. Harmon's single factor test suggests that the common method variance effects on the data may not be substantial, but the results must be interpreted in light of the possibility of such influence.

Future researchers may wish to consider three approaches to assessing the effects of career management practices on employee attitudes and behaviors. Eby, Allen and Brinley (in press) have provided evidence that the extent to which career management practices are offered by their employer affects employee career-related attitudes. Additional research along this line is needed to assess the effects on employee behaviors and behavioral intentions.

A second approach is to continue the line of the present research in examining the frequency in which employees actually use career management practices and the resulting impact on employee attitudes and behaviors/intentions. Researchers might be able to more objectively measure frequency by asking HR departments to record how often employees report to their offices to engage in some of these activities.

A third approach is to examine employee perceptions of the quality or usefulness of the various career management practices offered by their organizations and the result of these perceptions on employee attitudes and behaviors. While research on the effects of career management practices is in its early stages, there is growing evidence that these practices are related to important employee attitudes and behavioral intentions.

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Mel E. Schnake, Valdosta State University

Robert J. Williams, Valdosta State University

William Fredenberger, Valdosta State University

Table 1: Scale Characteristics, Reliability Estimates and
Correlation Matrix

 Mean SD 1 2

CMPU 1.97 .79 .95 .46 **
JS 3.26 .78 .91
JI 1.93 .68
JS 2.21 .80
OC 3.39 .69
OCB 3.46 .49
ITO 2.38 .48
TOP 1.66 .48
G na na
Age 36.61 9.74
OS 669 1050

 3 4 5 6

CMPU -.30 ** -.27 ** .32 ** .17
JS -.47 ** -.55 ** .74 ** .42 **
JI .92 .66 ** -.39 ** -.18
JS .92 -.41 ** -.25 *
OC .93 .66 **
OCB .78
ITO
TOP
G
Age
OS

 7 8 9 10 11

CMPU -.18 -.38 ** .16 .15 .05
JS -.40 ** -.18 .18 .22 * .04
JI .34 ** .28 ** -.02 -.14 -.04
JS .50 ** .33 ** -.15 -.15 -.03
OC -.46 ** -.19 -.32 ** .21 * -.02
OCB -.23 * -.17 .41 ** .13 -.09
ITO .84 .47 ** -.28 ** -.31** -.10
TOP .91 -.14 -.37** -.09
G na .10 -.04
Age na .00
OS na

* p < .05 ** p < .01 n = 135

Legend: CMPU: Career Management Practice Use

JI: Job Insecurity

OC: Organizational Commitment

TOP: TO Preparation

AGE: age

JS: Job Satisfaction

JS: Job Stress

ITO: Intent to TO

G: Gender

OS: Organization Size

Table 2: Results of Regression Analysis of Career Management Practices
on Employee Attitudes and Perceptions

 [R.sup.2] Values

 JobSat JobStress

Step 1: Control Variables .972 .041
Step 2: Career Management Practice Use .241 ** .093 *

Beta Coefficients of Dependent Variables

Control Variables JobSat JobStress

 Age .20 -.11
 Gender .16 -.10
 Organization Size .01 -.00
 Independent Variable
 Career Management Practice Use .42 ** -.24 *

 [R.sup.2] Values

 JobInSecure Org Commit

Step 1: Control Variables .021 .136 **
Step 2: Career Management Practice Use .100 * .201 **

Beta Coefficients of Dependent Variables

Control Variables JobInsecure Org Commit

 Age -.11 .16
 Gender .04 .26 **
 Organization Size .01 -.03
 Independent Variable
 Career Management Practice Use -.29 ** .26 **

* p < .05 ** p < .01 n = 135

Table 3: Results of Regression Analysis of Career Management
Practices on OCB, Employee Turnover Intentions and Turnover
Preparations

 [R.sup.2] Values

 TO TO
 OCB Intent Preparation

Step 1: Control Variables .177 ** .163 ** .143 **
Step 2: Career Management .199 ** .172 ** .243 **
 Practices Use

 Beta Coefficients of Dependent Variables

 TO TO
Control Variables OCB Intent Preparation

 Age .08 -.25 * -.31 **
 Gender .36 ** -.25 * -.05
 Organization Size -.07 -.07 -.01
Independent Variable
 Career Management Practice Use .15 -.10 -.32 **

* p < .05 ** p < .01 n = 135