The role of employee spirituality in the survivor recovery process following corporate M&A.

Harrison-Walker, L. Jean ; Tombaugh, Jay R.

INTRODUCTION

More than $520 billion in U.S. merger and acquisition activity occurred in the third quarter of 2000 (Gemignani, 2001). The most recent figures from the World Bank show that $3.5 trillion dollars were involved in mergers and acquisitions worldwide in 1999. The U.S. was the most active merger market in 1999, making up 55 percent of the global value. The work environment following the merger of two corporations may be radically altered and present significant challenges for those employees who have retained their positions. Recent research suggests that these "job survivors" go through a multi-stage "recovery process" that ultimately leads to personal growth and improved performance and productivity (Harrison-Walker & Alexander, in press). The transformational process of 'survivor recovery' consists of seven stages: insecurity, embarrassment, anger, guilt, searching, surrender, and personal growth.

The current research borrows from the literature on spirituality and bereavement, stress, and coping to build a model to explain the role of employee spirituality in the survivor recovery process. The paper is presented in four parts. First, the literature regarding the impact of corporate M&A on remaining employees is discussed. Second, the literature on spirituality and the experience of life crises is reviewed. Third, a model of spirituality and the survivor recovery process is presented, along with a series of research propositions. Finally, the authors set forth the managerial and organizational implications of the proposed model.

JOB SURVIVORS AND CORPORATE M&A

When measured by either the number of incidents or their dollar value, corporate merger and acquisition activity has increased significantly in the last 15 years (Gemignani, 2001; Pryor, 2001). For example, Pryor's (2001) research shows that total worldwide activity increased from $142 billion in 1985 to almost $2 trillion in 1999. Similarly, the total volume of mergers and acquisitions rose an average of 20.8 percent for the same time period.

Contrary to the expectations of M&A corporate partners, merger and acquisition activity does not appear to have a positive impact on shareholder value. According to a study by KPMG that looked at 700 of the most expensive deals from 1996 to 1998, more than half resulted in reduced shareholder value and another 30 percent added no discernible value. Much of the existing literature that examines the aftermath of mergers and acquisitions suggests that people issues are the root cause of low performance following M&A.

While many companies provide support for those who have lost their jobs in a corporate restructuring, few offer programs or develop procedures designed to help workers who retain employment. Noer (1993) suggests that those left behind experience "survivor sickness," a "generic term that describes a set of attitudes, feelings and perceptions that occur in employees who remain in organizational systems following involuntary employee reductions." The sickness arises because these individuals feel violated (Moore, 1994) and as a result experience anger, depression, fear, distrust, and guilt (Noer, 1993; Brockner, 1983; Brockner, 1986; Pritchett, 1985). Other symptoms of survivor sickness identified in the literature include anxiety (Brockner, 1986; Noer, 1990), sadness (Spaniel, 1995), skepticism (Moore, 1994), concerns about chances for advancement and salary (Berman, 2000), concern about the impact on benefits (Berman, 2000), fatigue (Moore, 1994), health problems (Kanter, 1997; Vahtera, Kivimaki & Pentti 1997), helplessness (Berk, 1996), resentment (Berk, 1996; Moore, 1994), and low morale (Berk, 1996). The overall effect is diminished productivity, which may leave the company worse off than before the M&A (Noer, 1994).

Bourantas and Nicandrou (1998) argue that the reactions of surviving employees are similar to those experienced during the bereavement process. That is, the feelings of betrayal and the sense of loss experienced by surviving employees are similar to the grieving for a lost relative or close friend (Marks, 1988; Marks & Mirvis, 1986; Schweiger, Ivancevich & Power 1987; Sinetar, 1981). According to Bowlby (1980), the grieving process consists of four stages that involve emotional numbing and disbelief, searching, disorganization and despair, and acceptance and adjustment. In comparison, the literature on death and dying identifies similar stages of recovery. Specifically, Kubler-Ross (1969) identifies the five stages of death and dying as denial and isolation, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance.

Using the experience of bereavement as an analogy, Harrison-Walker and Alexander (in press) suggest that the effects of corporate M&A on survivors should be conceptualized as a multi-stage process through which individuals pass, rather than as a syndrome (defined as a group of related symptoms) (c.f. Marks, 1988; Marks & Mirvis, 1985) or sickness that must be "cured". More specifically, Harrison-Walker and Alexander (in press) conceptualize the survivor experience as a "recovery process"; that is, a transformational process with seven identifiable stages. These seven stages of survivor recovery include: (1) insecurity; workers feel anxiety regarding the significant changes in the work environment, (2) embarrassment; relationships become awkward as workers feel shame and embarrassment over retaining their positions while others are terminated, (3) anger; workers feel anger and resentment toward the organization for taking these disruptive actions, (4) guilt; concerned that they share some responsibility for what has happened, workers, workers feel guilty, (5) searching; workers seek logical explanations for the changes, and to understand their new roles and responsibilities, (6) surrender; with sadness, workers accept the "death" of their old organization, and (7) personal growth; a sense of security is restored as workers adapt to the new work environment and experience personal and professional growth.

SPIRITUALITY AND THE EXPERIENCE OF LIFE CRISES

Definitions of religion typically focus on the expression of existential belief systems through the practices of an organized group or institution (Corbett, 1990; Mahrer, 1996). Spirituality, while including religious beliefs and practices, is often conceived in broader terms, focusing on a person's subjective relationship with a God or Higher Power, a sense of transcendence, the search for meaning and purpose in life, and subjective experiences not associated with traditional religious institutions (Zinnbauer, 1997). Similar to other researchers (see e.g., Fabricatore, Handal & Fenzel, 2000), the authors use the general concept of "personal spirituality" to describe an individual's overall religious and spiritual belief system and practices, and their integration into daily life. Just as psychological well-being is a reflection of our psychological health, spiritual well-being reflects our inner spirituality and spiritual health. More specifically, the concept of spiritual well-being refers to the extent to which an individual applies spiritual principles to daily activities, feels grounded in his/her relationship with God or a higher power, sense of transcendence and spiritual growth, and finds meaning and purpose in life (Hatch, Burg, Naberhaus & Hellmich, 1998; Ellison, 1983).

To date, there appears to be no research that directly examines the spirituality of job survivors. As previously suggested, however, the experiences of job survivors may be similar to those of individuals dealing with a significant life crisis such as the loss of a spouse or loved one. Accordingly, the authors borrow from the literature on spirituality and bereavement, stress, and coping to build a model for the role of employee spirituality in the survivor recovery process.

An abundance of literature shows that people, when struggling to find understanding and purpose in life events or cope with problems, turn to their religious and spiritual beliefs. For example, strong evidence suggests that religion and spirituality play an important role in moderating the negative effects of perceived stress on various psychological and behavioral outcomes (Belavich, 1995; Hathaway & Pargament, 1992; Kim, 2002; Pargament, 1990, 1997; Worthington, 1989).

Pargament (1997) reviews a relatively large body of literature showing that various religious variables have a positive impact on psychological and emotional adjustment for individuals coping with such life events as death of a loved one, natural disasters, chronic illness, and acts of terrorism. Spilka, Shaver and Kirpatrick (1985) suggest that religion and spirituality enhance coping with stress by providing the person with a greater sense of control, self-esteem, and sense of meaning in life.

Research further demonstrates that positive spiritual identity is related to healthier lifestyles, helps people cope more efficiently on an interpersonal, emotional and spiritual level (Bergin, et al, 1994; Richards & Potts, 1995), and is predictive of positive aspects of mental health, such as individual subjective well-being (see Diener, Suh, Lucas & Smith, 1999 for a review). Fabricatore, Handal, and Fenzel (2000) suggest that individuals with a stronger sense of spirituality are able to maintain a more positive sense of overall satisfaction with life when faced with daily and life stressors.

Those conducting research in the field of thanatology have argued that, as with other forms of stress, spirituality and religious beliefs moderate the bereavement process following the loss of a loved one (Bowlby, 1980; Parkes, 1993; Richards, Acree & Folkman, 1999; Scuchter & Zisook, 1993). For example, Richards and Folkman (1997) find that the spiritual beliefs of survivors in relationships are reported to be a significant source of emotional comfort, enabling survivors to find positive meaning in life despite the intense feelings of anxiety, sadness and grief. Similarly, Fry (2001) finds that religious and spiritual variables are significantly related to the psychological well-being of widows and widowers following the death of the spouse. Fry (2001) concludes that existential variables, including religiousness and spirituality, may in fact be better predictors of psychological adjustment following loss than the traditional predictors of health, education, income and social resources.

EMOTIONAL CRISES AS A CATALYST FOR SPIRITUAL DEVELOPMENT

Some researchers posit that a significant life crisis can actually serve as a catalyst for personal spiritual development. Balk (1999) argues, for example, that bereavement, as a life crisis, can trigger spiritual change because the crisis (a) allows for sufficient time for reflection, (b) permanently impacts the life of the individual, and (c) creates a psychological imbalance that that resists being quickly stabilized. Marrone (1999, p.498) describes the "psychospiritual transformation" phase of reaction to loss as "a profound, growth-oriented spiritual/existential transformation that fundamentally changes our assumptions beliefs, and attitudes about life, death, love, compassion and God." Similarly, others argue that spiritual development occurs when an individual is forced to examine, assess and reconstruct his or her values and beliefs (Butman, 1990). Those involved in a life crisis must consider the meaning of the event and attempt to comprehend its personal significance (Moos & Schaefer, 1986).

Batten and Oltjenbruns (1999) provides some limited evidence of spiritual growth during the bereavement process. Based upon interviews with four adolescents who had lost a sibling, the authors find that the crises suffered by these individuals triggered profound changes in their perspectives on the meaning of life, self, relationships, death, and God (Batten & Oltjenbruns 1999).

SPIRITUALITY AND VULNERABILITY: THE ROLE OF COGNITIVE APPRAISAL AND THE COPING PROCESS

Personal spiritual development has been shown to be a positive mediator of stress and various psychological, emotional and physical outcomes. Individuals with stronger spiritual well-being tend to be able to adjust to and recover from significant negative life events more quickly than others. An explanation for this phenomenon may lie in the literature on cognitive appraisal, vulnerability, and coping processes relevant to a cognitive-phenomenological theory of stress (Lazarus, 1966; Lazarus, 1967; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984).

Seminal work by Lazarus and Folkman (1984) identifies cognitive appraisal and vulnerability as key concepts in understanding an individual's perceptions of and reactions to stressful situations. Cognitive appraisal is the act of attributing meaning to environmental events. Thus, while many events may have the potential to become stressors to a person, those that actually do tend to do so because of the meaning attributed to them. An individual's sense of vulnerability increases as his/her perceived resistance to environmental threats (e.g., perceptions of stressors) decreases. Lazarus and Folkman (1984) argue that a person's commitments (motivation to achieve valued goals) and beliefs (cognitive schema regarding what one believes to be true about the world and his/her place in it) are the major components of cognitive appraisal.

Coping, the other critical process involved in stressful encounters, is defined by Lazarus and Folkman (1984, p.141) as "... cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific external and/or internal demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person." The two major coping strategies include emotion-focused coping (the regulation of distressing emotions) and problem-focused coping (attempts to change the source of the distress). Research shows that most people use both strategies (Folkman & Lazarus, 1985; Folkman & Lazarus, 1980).

Similar to the cognitive-phenomenological approach to stress, other authors note the importance of individual cognitive style in the relationship between spirituality, stress, and coping. For example, Pargament (1996) asserts that a person could use his or her religious or spiritual beliefs to "reframe" a stressful situation in an attempt to find purpose and meaning. Similarly, Richards, Acree and Folkman (1999) find that a study group higher in spiritual development reported greater "positive reappraisal" and coping. Finally, Marrone (1999) argues that the phases of bereavement following loss of a loved one include (1) "cognitive restructuring" or the reorganization of one's thoughts and concepts to assimilate new information, (2) "emotional expression" or the process of identifying and accepting the emotional turmoil and confusion, and (3) "psychological reintegration" which focuses on new coping behaviors and cognitive strategies.

Marrone further discusses the importance of religious beliefs and cognitive assimilation strategies following personal loss. Individuals may use their existing cognitive schema (i.e., their religious or spiritual beliefs) to more easily assimilate a traumatic event. A person may, for example, deal with profound grief and sadness with the belief that a departed loved one is happy in an afterlife. Such assimilation strategies help individuals find ways of explaining, understanding and minimizing their loss. Those without well developed spiritual or religious beliefs may experience longer periods of emotional and cognitive upheaval while new schema are developed. That is, it may take longer and considerably more effort for such individuals to find meaning and purpose in the traumatic loss as well as their own lives.

A MODEL OF EMPLOYEE SPIRITUALITY AND SURVIVOR RECOVERY

Clearly, the literature shows that spirituality is an important factor in a person's ability to cope with stress, especially if that stress is a catastrophic life event such as the loss of a spouse or loved one. As Fry (2001, p.71) notes, "In a variety of life spheres, religious involvement and spirituality are increasingly recognized to be a solid basis for providing faith, hope, and psychological well-being even in the face of horrendous external conditions over which an individual may have no control."

The authors believe that spiritual well-being will have a significant impact on employees surviving layoffs and restructuring following corporate M&A. The underlying mechanisms that account for the positive influence of spirituality are similar regardless of the nature of the specific triggering event. That is, personal spirituality is a positive mediator for both a surviving spouse and a job survivor. In either case, the traumatized individual must deal with issues related to cognitive reappraisal, perceived vulnerability, and both emotional and problem-focused coping strategies. A model of the role of employee spirituality in the survivor recovery process is presented in Figure 1. The model shows the precipitating traumatic event to be the radically altered job environment (e.g., changes in job roles and responsibilities, reporting relationships, policies and procedures, culture, etc.) following a merger and acquisition. After the M&A, the surviving employees begin and progress through the stages of the recovery process as outlined previously in this paper (see Harrison-Walker & Alexander, in press, for a more in-depth discussion). Emerging from the recovery process, surviving workers show greater psychological and emotional adjustment to the altered environment, with an overall improvement in performance and productivity. The focus of this paper is the impact an employee's spiritual well-being has as he/she progresses through the recovery process. As we have discussed, however, the act of experiencing a traumatic life event can serve as a catalyst for a person's own spiritual growth and development.

The altered job environment following restructuring and M&A would seem to meet the three criteria suggested by Balk (1999) for a "significant life crisis" in that the employee would (1) have time for personal reflection, (2) be permanently impacted by the event, and (3) experience a severe psychological upheaval. As the model indicates, after the M&A experience, the employee may begin to consider previously ignored "spiritual" explanations in a search for the reason and meaning of the experience. Such spiritual growth and development would impact the employee's sense of spiritual well-being.

Research Proposition 1:

Experiencing M&A as a traumatic life event may itself trigger an employee's spiritual growth and development and sense of spiritual well-being.

[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]

The model further shows that an employee's sense of spiritual well-being impacts progression through the recovery process by influencing the individual's cognitive appraisal process. As previously noted, individuals with stronger spiritual well-being tend to be able to adjust to and recover from significant life events more quickly than others. Their spiritual commitments and beliefs allow them to more readily restructure or cognitively assimilate what has happened to them. That is, their spirituality allows them to find meaning and purpose in, or "make sense of", life events.

Research Proposition 2:

Employee spiritual well-being directly impacts the individual's cognitive appraisal process following M&A activity.

Directly related to an individual's cognitive appraisal of a situation is their adoption of coping strategies to deal with the event aftermath. Surviving employees are likely to use both problem-focused and emotion-focused coping strategies when attempting to adjust to a post-MA work environment. Employees high in spiritual well-being, able to more effectively assimilate the meaning and purpose of what has happened, will also be able to use more positive coping strategies.

Research Proposition 3:

The cognitive appraisal process has a direct impact on the emotion-focused and problem-focused coping strategies used by the employee.

Research Proposition 3a:

Spiritual well-being will indirectly effect the emotion-focused and problem-focused coping strategies used by an employee by way of cognitive appraisal.

Effective problem-focused coping strategies, for example, deal with the person's ability to identify various problem sources and plan for appropriate action. Through emotion-focused strategies the employee might assert self-control, assume responsibility, maintain a safe emotional distance when appropriate, and seek social support (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Effective use of coping strategies will aid the job survivor as he/she progresses through the insecurity, embarrassment, anger, guilt, and search for meaning inherent in the recovery process.

Research Proposition 4

The positive emotion-focused and problem-focused coping strategies used by an employee will enhance the survivor recovery process.

As outlined by Harrison-Walker and Alexander (in press), job survivors emerge from the recovery process following M&A activity, adapting to the changes in the work environment with a greater sense of psychological and emotional adjustment. With appropriate opportunities provided by management, the worker's performance and productivity should flourish.

MANAGERIAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL IMPLICATIONS

Several key factors regarding corporate M&A activity seem evident: 1.) There has been a significant increase in the number of mergers and acquisitions (Pryor, 2001), and there is every reason to believe this activity will continue, 2.) The performance and productivity of employees surviving M&A activity is critical for the organization's continued operation, and 3.) Following M&A activity, management must take a more active role in assisting surviving employees' adjustment to the altered work environment.

The spiritual well-being of job survivors is one factor important to their psychological and emotional adjustment after M&A activity. Fortunately, the issue of employee spirituality is becoming more accepted as relevant in the workplace, and amenable to management intervention. Numerous authors have noted the significant increase in the number of publications that focus on employee spirituality as a central issue in employee and organizational development (Ashmos & Duchon, 2000; Craigie, 1999; Conger, 1994; Biberman & Whitty, 2000; Cavanaugh, 1999; King & Nicol, 1999). Moreover, several authors have presented data indicating the relevance of spirituality as an organizational behavior variable. For example, in their recent text, A Spiritual Audit of Corporate America, researchers Ian Mitroff and Elizabeth Denton (1999) present data that showed managers believe spirituality is an appropriate topic for the workplace, and that organizations described as "spiritual" were also rated as showing greater warmth, flexibility, caring and ethics (Mitroff & Denton, 1999). Bruce (2000) presents data showing that almost half of the employees surveyed indicated their work was an important part of their spiritual path. Trott 's (1996) data shows that employee spiritual well-being was related to greater commitment to the organization, increased individual self-efficacy, and a greater willingness to cooperate, grow, learn, and adapt to challenges.

Spirituality seems to be an integral part of many people's lives, even if they are at work. Helping employees recognize and develop their own spirituality can greatly benefit both the worker and the organization. As presented here, employees stronger in their sense of spiritual well-being are likely to more quickly adjust to the difficulties of working in a post-M&A environment. Thus, organizations can and should actively promote the spiritual development of workers. This may be accomplished through programs designed to increase the awareness of spiritual issues and their relevance to the workplace, providing opportunities to share spiritual values (e.g., spiritual teambuilding), spiritual leadership training, and structured activities related to spiritual experiences (e.g., yoga and meditation classes, prayer groups, guest speakers, and community involvement).

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