Subtextual communication impression management: an empirical study.

Chaney, Lillian H. ; Lyden, Julie A.

INTRODUCTION

Subtextual communication, a covert language that strengthens or negates the spoken text, is used to influence the impressions other people have of us and may be used to competitive advantage in numerous situations in the workplace. The subtext is more subtle than the obvious text and may be more honest in interactions between people (Fast, 1991).

Subtextual communication elements are related to image and may convey positive or negative impressions related to assurance, credibility, competence, and savoir-faire through dress, manner of introducing people, body language, regard for time, use of electronic communication, and dining etiquette.

Understanding positive and negative impressions conveyed by certain subtextual messages can enable a person to control the image he or she wishes to project. Since books are often judged by their covers and people by the external images they project, learning to manipulate subtextual communication can be important for career advancement.

Subtextual communication elements addressed in this paper include business dress, introductions, gestures and body language, punctuality and regard for time, use of electronic communication, and dining etiquette.

BUSINESS DRESS

People form impressions of others within 30 seconds to a minute of meeting them. A primary source of this initial impression is dress and overall appearance. Leary (1995) points out that "whether we like it or not, people's reactions to others are affected by their physical appearance" (p. 93). One's appearance should inspire confidence and give an impression of confidence and professionalism (Fast, 1991).

The consensus of the literature on the meaning of dress in society is that powerful messages are communicated by clothing (Rafaeli & Pratt, 1993). In some companies, employees who do not maintain the firm's dress standards will probably pay the price, including being passed over for promotion or even being terminated. Riordan (1989) cautions that business persons must be extremely careful to adhere to rigorous standards of dress and to acknowledge that even minor variations can result in one's downfall. John T. Molloy, a well-known image consultant, emphasizes how important dress is in projecting power. Molloy (1981) recommends wearing serious clothing, very dark suits in charcoal gray or navy blue pinstripe with white shirts or blouses and obviously expensive accessories, to enhance the person's psychological sense of power. Wallach (1986) also recommends conservative attire: business suits in gray, navy and medium blue, and tan for men, skirted suits (or skirts with contrasting jackets) in black, brown, beige, navy, gray, and wine for women. People who wear suits, whether male or female, are perceived as more professional than those who wear another type of attire (Rafaeli & Pratt, 1993). Women are advised to wear a buttoned-up collar and avoid walking into the office in running shoes. Men should avoid cheap ties and polyester clothes (DeMott, 1985). People who wear jeans and sandals to work are giving the impression that they are not serious about their work (Rosenfeld, Giacalone, & Riordan, 1989).

Appropriateness of dress to the specific occasion is important. People who are dressed appropriately for the occasion usually feel better about themselves, feel more self-confident, and behave professionally (Solomon, 1986). Dressing formally is suggested for meetings in the executive suite while informal attire is appropriate when interacting with other employees in the company's exercise facility (Mercer, 1993). The "dressing down" trend practiced by some firms is avoided by others. Firms who handle other people's money (banks) or those who place a high value on image and credibility (law firms) still follow a traditional dress code (Veverka, 1995).

Color, fabric, and value are also attributes of organizational dress. Colors convey different meanings: white, worn by certain hospital personnel, conveys purity and cleanliness, while blue conveys dignity. Brown, worn by UPS drivers, conveys trust, while red conveys affection. Another dimension of color is brightness. Arthur (1995) observes that colors worn in the workplace clearly make powerful statements and that brightness is important. A wardrobe of neutral colors with rich, subtle overtones is suggested until the person develops a sense of what is appropriate in the organization. Dress fabric can convey status or a lack of it. Pure fibers, such as silk, wool, cotton, and linen, convey higher status than such synthetic fibers such as polyester (Rafaeli & Pratt, 1993). Experts agree that quality of clothing is more important than quantity and that clothing in natural fibers and classic styles is preferred (Russell, 1992). Garment value is an important consideration in judging employment potential (Francis & Evans, 1988) and may be more important than hues or style.

Attention to grooming gives the impression of respect for self and others. Positive impressions are conveyed by shoes that are expensive, made of leather, and are well maintained and well shined. Korda (1975) says that wearing inexpensive shoes is the ultimate negative impression, along with men who wear socks that expose skin when they cross their legs. He maintains that shoes are basic symbols of power; he adds that dirty shoes are a sign of weakness, regardless of the person's age or culture.

Since U.S. persons respond negatively to body and breath odors, odors of perspiration and offensive breath should be controlled or masked. Fragrances and aftershave lotion, often used to mask odors, should be worn in moderation. Hair should be clean and styled conservatively. Facial hair on men is frowned on in some companies. If mustaches and beards are acceptable, they should be professionally trimmed.

Thompson and Kleiner (1992) sum up the importance of dress to projecting a positive image: "Successful people generally look successful. They wear clothes that look attractive on them, are well groomed, and hold themselves with confidence. The intended message is that they feel good about themselves and that others will feel good about them as well" (p. 82).

GREETINGS AND INTRODUCTIONS

In addition to dress, initial impressions are formed based upon how people greet each other, including handshakes, and one's manner of making introductions. Since the handshake is the typical form of greeting in the U.S., learning the nuances of a positive handshake is important to projecting a favorable impression. A firm handshake, held for one or two seconds, is viewed positively; it conveys decisiveness and vitality. A limp handshake, on the other hand, is viewed negatively; it conveys a lack of interest, confidence, or vitality. A clammy handshake may indicate nervousness or anxiety. The "sandwich," clasping the other person's hands with a two-handed shake, is viewed as condescending, particularly if the person's hand is turned horizontally. Handshakes should be vertical; turning the hand over is a power play (Bixler, 1984). Eye contact is expected during the handshake, which is repeated upon departure. Regardless of gender, the guest extends his or her hand first (Gray, 1993).

When being introduced, both males and females typically rise, extend their hands, and say something like, "Nice to meet you, Mr. Lee." When greeting others, people typically say, "Good morning, how are you?" The other person, recognizing that this is a ritual, responds, "Fine, thank you, and how are you?" to which the other person responds, "Fine, thanks." Negative impressions are conveyed by persons who break the ritual by telling you how they actually are.

When introducing people in a group, give the guest's name first, then give the names of the other people in the group. Asking group members to introduce themselves is inappropriate; the impression conveyed by asking people to introduce themselves is that you are abdicating this leadership role, that you do not know the names of group members, or that your social skills leave something to be desired. When you enter a group and no one introduces you, introduce yourself with something like, "Hello, I don't believe we have met; I'm Donna Vande Zande."

GESTURES AND BODY LANGUAGE

Because gestures and body language can enhance the oral message or negate it, initial impressions are often formed by eye contact, how you walk into a room, stand, and sit, where you sit in a meeting, and by such personal mannerisms as nail biting, constantly clearing the throat, or chewing the lips (Bixler, 1984). Because nonverbal aspects of communication are highly visible, it is important that nonverbal messages and oral communication are congruent. When nonverbal messages conflict with spoken messages, what a person does is more likely to be believed than what a person says. For example, the person who walks with hunched shoulders and head down will be perceived by others as lacking confidence, even though that person may in fact be quite confident (Crampton & Mishra, 1995). Although it is sometimes difficult to interpret another person's message because of conflicting signals, we can control our own nonverbal signals so that the appropriate impression is conveyed.

Eye contact in the U.S. is perceived as a sign of attentiveness and respect and may also be related to honesty. Eye contact with occasional glancing away is preferred; prolonged staring is interpreted negatively.

Walking into a room confidently with head and shoulders erect and using good posture while seated conveys a positive impression. Dominant persons in meetings usually sit in a relaxed position and will shift positions often. They gesture expansively and tend to look at others in the meeting more often than do more submissive participants. Gestures are also sometimes indicators of a person's attitudes or emotions. Steepling (placing fingertips together to form a steeple) may indicate a feeling of superiority or self-confidence, while a clenched fist may indicate hostility or anger.

Power is often conveyed by seating. The leader usually occupies the "power perch," located at the head of a rectangular table. The position to the right and left of the power perch are also important positions as is the person who sits at the foot of the table (unless the table is unusually long).

Personal mannerisms, such as jiggling keys, tapping the fingers, and twisting the hair, give various negative impressions, including nervousness, impatience, and boredom. A problem with negative personal mannerisms is that people who use them are often unaware of their behavior and do not realize the negative impressions other people form of them. To make matters worse, good manners dictate that colleagues avoid pointing out these personal idiosyncrasies.

PUNCTUALITY AND REGARD FOR TIME

Since the U.S. is a time-conscious culture, people who wish to convey positive impressions will want to show that they value time by being punctual for meetings and appointments, by keeping conferences with colleagues brief, and by adhering to announced meeting times. Being on time shows a consideration for the other person's schedule as well as projecting a well-organized image. Arriving late for appointments conveys the impression of unreliability and the perception that the other person's time is not valuable. When a person is only five minutes late, an apology is expected. Disregard for time is interpreted by most U.S. persons as blatant disrespect.

How time is used also conveys negative or positive impressions. In the U.S., a monochronic culture, people perform only one major activity at a time. Therefore, reading one's mail while attending a staff meeting is viewed negatively. Keeping people waiting can be interpreted as a "power play." One executive always managed to be on the telephone when visitors arrived and continued rather lengthy conversations while visitors waited thus giving the impression that he was extremely busy.

Time is also related to status. In one study people viewed films showing several scenarios of interactions between executives and visitors. The participants in the study correctly assessed the relative status of the two persons by the time the executive took to answer the knock and by the visitor's behavior after the executive answered the knock. When a visitor knocked on the door of the executive's office, the longer the executive took to answer the knock, the higher his or her status was perceived to be. Visitors with high status entered the office and quickly walked up to the executive's desk, while those with less status stepped just inside the door after entering (Fisher, 1993).

USE OF ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION

For many people telephones are not so much a convenience as they are a prop to convey power. A visitor can be demeaned by the executive's accepting telephone calls in the middle of the visit. On the other hand, giving instructions to "Hold my calls" gives the visitor the impression that he or she is important.

Other ways in which the telephone is used to convey status and power is the use of cellular phones in restaurants, meetings, automobiles, and while walking from one meeting to another. Power and status are also involved when a person fails to follow the rule of returning all telephone calls within 24 hours, then apologizing profusely for the delay. A delaying tactic often used when an executive wants additional time to contemplate a proposal is to call people when they are sure to be out, such as during lunch, leaving a message such as, "I've been trying to get in touch with you"; then, when the person returns the call, the executive is conveniently in a meeting. The power game in telephoning, according to Korda (1975), includes the maximum potential to place calls along with the minimum possibility of receiving calls. The widespread use of answering machines makes this power game an easy one to play.

DINING ETIQUETTE

Employees being groomed for promotions to managerial levels need to be aware of the relationship between good table manners and making a positive impression. In a survey of top executives, Molloy (1981) reported that 60 percent said they would not let an employee represent the company publicly if they did not have good table manners; possessing good table manners is an absolute necessity for all executives. Jankowic (1986) maintains that the possession of good table manners is always a sign of education and good breeding and that qualities such as greed, disorganization, or feelings of insecurity will always be evident in behavior at the table. One CEO who took a junior-level manager to lunch with an important client was appalled that the upcoming manager ate like an animal. The CEO pointed out that the message he was sending was, "I don't know the rules for eating properly. How can I know the rules for interacting with people?" (Fast, 1991). As Fast (1991) points out, it is a question of subtext. He states: "not knowing how to handle oneself properly in the executive dining room or at a business lunch can contradict the image of competence a professional person wants to project" (p. 5).

What are the most highly visible dining faux pas that will ruin an aspiring manager's chances for promotion? One of the first obvious faux pas is using the napkin incorrectly. Since napkins are used daily, many opportunities exist for observing their use. In fact, many judgments are made about a person simply by what he or she does with the napkin. The napkin is placed in the lap immediately upon being seated and is returned to the table when everyone has finished eating. Leaving the napkin on the table during the meal or replacing the soiled napkin on the table before everyone has finished would quickly label the person as socially inept.

The second faux pas is that of using the wrong utensils or using utensils incorrectly. Utensils are selected from the outside in. The zig-zag style is appropriate in the U.S. (cutting the meat with the knife held in the right hand and the fork in the left, then placing the knife on the plate, shifting the fork to the right hand, and eating). Utensils are returned to their service plates after use, e.g., the coffee spoon is placed on the saucer, not left in the cup. The knife and fork are placed side by side on the right-hand edge of the plate to indicate that you have finished. Utensils are never cleaned with the napkin nor are utensils that drop on the floor retrieved.

Third, individuals should be aware of displaying inappropriate behavior at the table. Elbows are kept off the table while eating. Also avoid: using toothpicks, applying makeup, talking with the mouth full, doing two things at once, starting before everyone at the table is served, and pushing back the chair when finished.

A fourth consideration is that of ordering inappropriate foods at business lunches or dinners when being effective is important. Foods should be easy to eat; persons who order difficult-to-eat or messy foods, such french onion soup, ribs, or fried chicken, will be giving more attention to their food than they will to the business at hand. While a sandwich is an appropriate lunch food, eating it without cutting it neatly into halves or fourths can give a negative impression.

A final important consideration is failing to follow accepted dining rules. Food is passed around the table in a counterclockwise direction. Confusion reigns when only one person violates this simple rule. The salt and pepper are always passed together even though a person may have requested only the salt. When waiting for your business colleagues to join you for lunch, do not order a drink. The place setting should not be disturbed until the others have arrived, with the exception of placing the napkin in the lap.

PURPOSE AND PROCEDURES

The purpose of this study is to provide empirical support for research related to subtextual communication aspects of impression management. Specifically, the study is designed to add credence to, or negate, researchers' views relative to this aspect of impression management. Further, the sample of respondents will provide areas of congruence or incongruence among people who differ by gender, age, and status.

A 15-item questionnaire was developed based on a review of literature related to subtextual communication aspects of impression management. Respondents indicated on a five-point scale (5=positive impressions; 1=negative impressions) their perception of the extent to which these items conveyed positive or negative impressions.

FINDINGS

To determine perceptions of positive or negative impressions conveyed by selected aspects of subtextual communication, a survey of selected Mid-South firms and schools was conducted. The sample was nonrandom and purposeful, which is considered appropriate in situations in which a larger population could not be easily accessed or enumerated (Babbie, 1990). Results of the 280 respondents who participated are described below.

Of the 277 respondents indicating their gender, 184 (66 percent) were female; 94 (34 percent) were male. A total of 99 (36 percent) of the 275 respondents providing their age were under the age of 25; 110 (40 percent) were 25 to 39; 59 (21 percent) were 40 to 54 years of age; and 7 (3 percent) were 55 years of age or above. Participants were asked to indicate their status. Of the 274 providing this information, 112 (41 percent) were full-time students; 72 (26 percent) were managers; 68 (25 percent) were clerical/secretarial employees; and 22 (8 percent) checked "other."

According to respondents, the item conveying the most positive impression was direct eye contact when greeting people or conversing, while the most negative impression was conveyed by arriving late for an important meeting. Mean responses for each item, using a five-point scale, are shown in Table 1.

ANALYSIS OF DATA

A SPSS Statistical Package was used to analyze the data. To determine statistical differences between each element and the demographic variables of gender, age, and status, a series of ANOVAs were performed. As shown in Table 2, significant differences were found between certain demographic factors on 12 of the 15 elements. Six elements showed significant differences by gender, four by age, and seven by status.

DISCUSSION

Opinions concerning the element perceived as portraying the overall strongest positive impression did not differ across respondents. Also, two other elements did not differ across demographic factors: a "sandwich" handshake and using a cellular phone. All of the other elements differed according to at least one demographic factor. Responses about two elements, hose/socks that cover a man's calf and leaving a 10 percent tip, differed according to all demographic factors. Specifically, females perceived hose/socks that cover a man's calf as conveying a more positive impression than did males (means = 3.19 and 2.85). Furthermore, Scheffe post hoc analysis revealed that respondents between 40 and 54 found this element more positive than did respondents under 25 (means = 3.49 and 2.92), and clerical/secretarial employees had higher perceptions than did full-time students (means = 3.37 and 2.87). Leaving a 10 percent tip was perceived as significantly more negative by males than by females (means of 1.86 and 2.23 respectively). Post hoc analysis for this element also showed a significant difference between mean responses of full-time students (mean of 1.80) and clerical/secretarial workers (mean of 2.68) as well as between managers (mean of 1.97) and clerical/secretarial workers.

The second highest overall perception regarded that of a silk dress. Analysis revealed that females (mean of 3.67) found this element to convey a significantly more positive impression than did males (mean of 3.36). Asking group members to introduce themselves was also seen more positively by females than by males (means of 3.67 and 3.12 respectively). Shoes of man-made materials was seen significantly different according to full-time students and clerical/secretarial employees; specifically, students perceived this element as less positive than did clerical/secretarial employees (means of 2.70 and 3.16). Additionally, with regard to placing fingertips together to form a "steeple" during a meeting, clerical/secretarial workers perceived this as significantly less positive than did managers (means of 2.43 and 2.92). Status was also a differentiating factor with regard to ordering fried chicken for lunch, a brown suit with a blue shirt/blouse, and taking a client to lunch at Pizza Hut. Scheffe post hoc analysis revealed specific differences such as the fact that students had the lowest impression of ordering fried chicken (mean of 2.32), followed by managers (mean of 2.82), and clerical/secretarial employees (mean of 3.04). Those who marked "other" in the status category perceived wearing a brown suit with a blue shirt/blouse as significantly different and less negative (mean of 2.77) than either full-time students (mean of 2.05) or managers (mean of 1.90). Similarly, these "other" respondents found taking a client to Pizza Hut as less negative (mean of 2.55) than either full-time students (mean of 1.70) or managers (mean of 1.85).

Opinions of several very negatively perceived elements differed according to demographic factors as well. For instance, with regard to waiting for two minutes to answer a visitor's knock, those 40 to 54 (mean 2.15) viewed this as significantly different than respondents under 25 (mean of 1.6) and respondents age 25 to 39 (mean 1.59). Furthermore, males perceived this as more negative than did females (means of 1.54 and 1.80 respectively). Conversely, females perceived continuing to talk on the telephone after a visitor arrives as significantly more negative than did males (means of 1.43 and 1.62). Finally, the element rated most negatively was arriving late for an important meeting. Answers regarding this element differed according to the age of respondents; however, post hoc analysis revealed no significant difference between any two groups.

SUMMARY

The use of impression management to influence career advancement is receiving heightened interest as the job market becomes increasingly competitive. Mercer (1993) states that to move ahead successfully, "what counts most is the style in which you do things and the impact you have on the people who can make or break your career" (p. 47). Doing whatever you do, whether it be dressing, eating, or walking, with panache is one of the important lessons to learn for those interested in using subtextual communication to enhance the impressions others have of them.

REFERENCES

Arthur, D. (1995, June). The importance of body language. HR Focus, 22-23.

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Crampton, S. M., & Mishra, J. M. (1995, Summer). Developing and packaging the total corporate image. SAM Advanced Management Journal, 60(3), 30-39.

DeMott, J. S. (1985, April 8). Looking good. Time, 56.

Fast, J. (1991). Body language in the workplace. New York: Penguin Books.

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Francis, S.K., & Evans, P. K. (1988). Effects of hue, value, and garment style on college recruiters' assessments of employment potential. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 67, 8793.

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Jankowic, E. (1986). Behave yourself: A working guide to business etiquette. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Korda, M. (1975). Power: How to get it, how to use it. New York: Random House.

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Molloy, J. T. (1981). Molloy's live for success. New York: Wm. Morrow & Co., Inc.

Rafaeli, A., & Pratt, M. (1993). Tailored meanings: On the meaning and impact of organizational dress. Academy of Management Review, 18(1), 32-55.

Riordan, C. A. (1989). Images of managerial success. In R. A. Giacalone & P. Rosenfeld (Eds.), Impression management in the organization. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 87-90.

Rosenfeld, P., Giacalone, R. A., and Riordan, C. A. (1995). Impression management in organizations. New York: Routledge.

Russell, A. (1992, May). Fine-tuning your corporate image. Black Enterprise, 22(10), 72-80. Solomon, M. R. (1986, April). Dress for effect. Psychology Today, 20-28.

Thompson, P. A., & Kleiner, B. H. (1992, September). How to read nonverbal communication. The Bulletin, 81-83.

Veverka, A. (1995, January 29). Informal wear. The Grand Rapids Press, F1.

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Lillian H. Chaney, The University of Memphis

Julie A. Lyden, The University of Memphis

TABLE 1
POSITIVE OR NEGATIVE IMPRESSIONS CONVEYED BY SELECTED
SUBTEXTUAL COMMUNICATION ELEMENTS

Subtextual Communication Elements Mean

Direct eye contact when greeting people or conversing 4.81
A silk dress 3.57
Asking the group members to introduce themselves 3.47
Hose/socks that cover a man's calf 3.07
Shoes of man-made materials 2.86
Placing fingertips together to form a "steeple"
 during a meeting 2.68
A "sandwich" handshake (clasping the other person's
 hand with a two-handed shake) 2.68
Ordering fried chicken for lunch 2.65
A brown suit with a blue shirt/blouse 2.12
Leaving a 10 percent tip at an expensive restaurant 2.10
Taking a business client to lunch at Pizza Hut 1.88
Waiting two minutes to answer a visitor's knock 1.72
Continuing to talk on the telephone after a visitor arrives 1.50
Using a cellular phone during a meeting 1.35
Arriving late for an important meeting 1.29

TABLE 2
ANOVA RESULTS

 F P F
 value

Direct eye contact when greeting people .33 .57 .46
 or conversing
A silk dress 5.03 .03 ** 1.26
Asking the group members to introduce 11.26 .00 * .24
 themselves
Hose/socks that cover a man's calf 5.39 .02 ** 3.91
Shoes of man-made materials 1.13 .29 2.44
Placing fingertips together to form .04 .85 1.40
 a "steeple" during a meeting
A "sandwich" handshake .96 .33 .24
Ordering fried chicken for lunch .06 .81 1.21
A brown suit with a blue shirt/blouse 1.03 .31 2.25
Leaving a 10 percent tip at an expensive 6.72 .01 * 5.41
 restaurant
Taking a business client to lunch at 1.18 .28 2.35
 Pizza Hut
Waiting two minutes to answer a 5.32 .02 ** 6.34
 visitor's knock
Continuing to talk on the telephone 4.06 .04 ** 1.10
 after a visitor arrives
Using a cellular phone during a meeting .32 .58 .58
Arriving late for an important meeting .38 .54 4.07

 P F P
 value value

Direct eye contact when greeting people .71 1.67 .17
 or conversing
A silk dress .29 2.12 .10
Asking the group members to introduce .87 1.40 .24
 themselves
Hose/socks that cover a man's calf .01 * 2.73 .04 **
Shoes of man-made materials .06 4.53 .00 *
Placing fingertips together to form .24 3.16 .03 **
 a "steeple" during a meeting
A "sandwich" handshake .87 .52 .67
Ordering fried chicken for lunch .31 7.96 .00 *
A brown suit with a blue shirt/blouse .08 5.18 .00 *
Leaving a 10 percent tip at an expensive .00 * 9.91 .00 *
 restaurant
Taking a business client to lunch at .07 5.48 .00 *
 Pizza Hut
Waiting two minutes to answer a .00 * 2.48 .06
 visitor's knock
Continuing to talk on the telephone .35 2.05 .11
 after a visitor arrives
Using a cellular phone during a meeting .63 1.78 .15
Arriving late for an important meeting .01 * 1.16 .33

* .01 level of significance

** .05 level of significance