Traffic load impact on the initiation and development of plastic deformations in road asphalt pavements/Transporto apkrovu itaka automobiliu keliu asfaltiniu dangu plastiniu deformaciju formavimuisi ir vystymuisi/Satiksmes slozu ietekme uz cela asfalta segu plastisko deformaciju veidosanos un attistibu/Liikluskoormuse moju plastsete deformatsioonide tekkele asfaltkatetes.
Ziliute, Laura ; Laurinavicius, Alfredas
1. Introduction
Roads of the Republic of Lithuania, making part of the transport
system of Lithuania, are one of the most important fields of national
economy having a large effect on the development of economy,
international trade, tourism and cultural communication. Since road
network is the most widely developed network all over the world, the
road transport is also most intensive. The roads and streets are used
not only as the routes to travel to and from home, working place and
shops, to carry passengers and goods but they are also used in the
everyday life. Data on traffic volume and axle loads is very important
for designing a new road as well as reconstructing the old ones.
Different roads and locations have a different traffic volume and
traffic-generated loads.
In the period 2000-2011, the total traffic volume on the roads of
national significance has increased by 46%, the volume of heavy
traffic--by 48%.
Various investigations showed that the properly designed and laid
asphalt pavement has a very long service life. Pavements are most often
designed in a way to serve 20 years, however based on the calculated
assurance factors (providing for the growing loads and traffic volumes,
climatic changes, deterioration of materials, etc.) the service life of
pavements is extended.
To seek for the most suitable and cost-effective road pavement
structures, in autumn 2007 a 710 m long experimental road pavement
section was constructed and opened to traffic, comprising 27 different
structures (there were analysed 12 structures with the different asphalt
layers). When the sections are affected by the same conditions (same
loads, temperatures and weather conditions) a longer service life of
road pavement structures (which could better withstand initiation of
plastic deformations, occurrence of defects and decrease in bearing
capacity) could be determined more accurately and substantiated more
properly. It is possible to more accurately define the cause of one or
another defect and to take more accurate solutions for the
reconstruction, repair or other works, where the research was started in
the very beginning of road operation.
2. Durability factors of road pavement structure
Asphalt concrete in road pavements disintegrates due to the
following reasons: due to destructive impact of heavy vehicles--causing
fatigue cracks in asphalt pavements (Sanchez-Silva et al. 2005; Ziliute
et al. 2010); due to the impact of climatic factors (sudden freeze-up in
winter, frequent temperature variations, solar radiation)
(Bhattacharjee, Mallick 2012; Leonovic, Melnikova 2012); due to
insufficient strength of road pavement structure; due to the fast
disintegration of road pavement structure (due to destructive impact of
vehicles (especially that of heavy vehicles), due to climatic factors,
groundwater effect, nonconformity of physical and mechanical properties
of materials used to the current requirements (Breakah et al. 2011;
Vaitkus et al. 2012); due to delayed maintenance and repair (Ferreira,
Santos 2012; Sanchez-Silva et al. 2005).
Investigations (Jongwon, Sandhyeok 2006; De Solminihac et al. 2003)
showed that the pressure of vehicle wheels on the road pavement and its
structure is the main load to be taken into consideration in pavement
design. When the load of vehicle travelling along the road exceeds the
design load only slight plastic deformations occur, but when the
accumulation of these deformations exceeds the permissible deformation,
during the period when pavement structure becomes most weak, the road
pavement and its structure start to disintegrate. The impact of heavy
vehicles on road pavement depends not only on their wheel loads, the
number of axles and their configuration but also on the number of wheels
in the axle (Romero, Lozano 2006; Salama et al. 2006).
One of the main criteria allowing to describe vehicle impact on
road pavement is the number of equivalent standard axle loads (ESAL).
The use of the ESAL index makes it possible to efficiently predict
durability of road pavements and to plan the repair and reconstruction
works of roads.
The equivalent of standard axles assesses the impact of vehicle
axles on road pavement. In practice, the standard axle load is the load
of 100 kN and its impact is equal to one. The impact of axle, the load
of which varies from the standard, on road pavement disintegration is
called the equivalent of standard axles and is calculated by the formula
(Cygas et al. 2008):
[ESAL.sub.100A] = [n.summation over i] [N.sub.i]
[([A.sub.i]/100).sup.4],
where [ESAL.sub.100A]--number of equivalent standard 100 kN axle
loads, units. It is possible to calculate the ESAL of each typical
vehicle and to multiply it by the number of this type of vehicles in the
flow or to multiply straight by the ESAL of the whole vehicle flow; n--a
potential number of the variations of vehicle axle loads (of one vehicle
or vehicle flow), units; [N.sub.i]--number of axles with the equal load
(of one vehicle or vehicle flow), units; [A.sub.i]--vehicle axle load,
kN.
3. Theoretical modelling of the impact of traffic flow on asphalt
pavement structure
Roads and streets are affected by the static and dynamic vehicle
loads. The static loads are caused by standing vehicles, the dynamic--by
the constantly moving, braking, accelerating vehicles (Green 2008; Saad
et al. 2005). Depending on the type of load, the frequency of load
repetition and the combination of loads the following pavements are
designed: flexible, semi-rigid and rigid. A flexible pavement is asphalt
pavement, a semi-rigid--with the asphalt wearing course and the
underlying concrete, a rigid--concrete pavement.
Under the action of traffic loads, three types of stresses are
formed in asphalt pavements: vertical, horizontal (tangential) and
shear.
The analysis of methods and models to determine traffic-generated
impacts on asphalt pavements has been carried out for the last several
decades. Previous investigations show that the scientists used to model
the static, dynamic, two-dimensional and three-dimensional asphalt
pavement loading. Asphalt pavement modelling was performed by using the
linear elastic, non-linear elastic, viscoelastic, stress-dependent,
plastoelastic compound models. The values of calculations were compared
to the data of measurements taken by correspondent equipment. Asphalt
concrete is a viscoelastic material. This means that under the effect of
different ambient conditions, asphalt concrete may take a different
physical state: viscous, viscoelastic, plastoelastic, elastic and
brittle.
Based on the literature overview, when modelling asphalt pavement
behaviour under traffic loads using the non-finite element method (Chen
et al. 2004; Wu et al. 2006), the finite element method (Fang et al.
2004) and the compound (Kim, Tutumluer 2006; Oh et al. 2006; Wang et al.
2005) models, also when monitoring the impact of tyres and/or loads on
road pavements (Erlingsson 2012; Maina et al. 2006; Yoo et al. 2006),
and having made the analysis of experimental data conformity to the
modelling results (Huang et al. 2002; Ullidtz, Zhang 2002), it was
noticed that the values obtained by computer calculations and field
tests were very similar. However, there were scientists who proposed to
perform a more comprehensive scientific research and to assess
additional circumstances (e.g. dynamic loading, bonding of layers,
material properties) using the appropriate models.
Under the action of long-term and repeated traffic loads, and other
factors (temperature variations, pavement aging, exceeded axle loads,
studded tyres used in winter, frequent braking, design errors, improper
technology of production works, improper maintenance, insufficient
pavement structural strength) the plastic deformations are formed (ruts,
corrugations, heaves), defects (cracks: structural, thermal, reflection,
edge, joint and extrusion) and other surface deformations (fretting,
ravelling, potholes, patches, bleeding potholes).
4. Experimental research of traffic-generated impact on asphalt
pavement structures
Seeking to determine the suitable and cost-effective road asphalt
pavement structures, a longer service life of which could be defined
more accurately and substantiated more properly and which could better
withstand initiation of plastic deformations, occurrence of defects and
decrease in the bearing capacity, in autumn 2007 the test section of
experimental road pavement structures (further--test section) with the
length of 710 m was constructed and opened to traffic, comprising 27
different pavement structures. Research of the change in the bearing
capacity and of the occurrence of cracks was started in the very
beginning of road operation (19 October 2007). To perform the research
and to assess the results obtained, the structures with the layers of
different asphalt materials were selected (Table 1). The main aspect in
selecting the site for the test sections and their research was that
this road is used by the heavy vehicles traveling to and from the two
queries (Silikatas and Pagiriu Nesta). For the analysis and assessment
of research results, the data of researches was chosen which were
carried out in a spring period based on the experimental research plan
presented in Fig. 1.
[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]
The whole traffic flow, passing along the test road, was calculated
and classified from the very beginning of road construction. Based on
the current data of heavy traffic volume (the total and of separate
classes) and the average ESA100 of one vehicle representing a certain
heavy vehicle class, the number of passed ESAwas calculated in a certain
time period. The test section is passed by 60000-70000 [ESAL.sub.100] on
average every year, the total number of [ESAL.sub.100] from the opening
of the test section to June 2012 was 310 000 (Fig. 2).
Measurements of the bearing capacity using the Benkelman beam were
performed in the rut and between the ruts of both traffic lanes (the
loaded and un-loaded). When assessing measurement results, a larger
attention was paid to the results obtained in the rut of the loaded
traffic lane (Fig. 3) due to a heavier acting load.
In summary, the bearing capacity measurements and the determined
static moduli of elasticity in the rut of asphalt pavement of the loaded
traffic lane showed that in 5 years of operation the lowest weakening
was represented by the structure No. 10, the wearing course of which is
laid from SMA 11 S, binder course--AC 16 AS, base course --AC 32 PS,
also by the structure No. 11 (wearing course --SMA 11 S with PMB, binder
course--AC 16 AS with PMB and base course--AC 32 PS) and the structure
No. 16 (wearing course--AC 11 VS, binder course--AC 16 [AS.sup.4] and
base course--AC 32 PS).
Measurements of the depth of ruts in asphalt pavement of the test
section were carried out by a mobile road research laboratory RST-28 in
both traffic lanes (loaded and un-loaded). The average depth of the
right and left ruts, and of the maximum clearance was calculated and
presented. Measurements showed that the depth of the right and left
ruts, and of the maximum clearance in the loaded traffic lane was higher
than that in un-loaded lane. Scientific research has determined that the
largest rut depth is formed in the loaded traffic lane in the trajectory
zone of the right wheel of moving vehicle (Fig. 4).
In course of research the least rutted pavement structures were
determined after 5 years of road operation: No. 12 (rut depth--3.6 mm,
asphalt pavement layers are made of: SMA 11 S with PMB, AC 16 AS, AC 32
PS); No. 11 (rut depth--3.7 mm, asphalt pavement layers are made of: SMA
11 S with PMB, AC 16 AS with PMB, AC 32 PS). The highest rutting was
represented by the following pavement structures: No. 27 (rut depth--6.5
mm, asphalt pavement layers are made of: AC 11 VS, AC 16 AS, AC 32
[PS.sup.7]); No. 15 (rut depth--5.3 mm, asphalt pavement layers are made
of: AC 11 VS, AC 16 [AS.sup.3], AC 32 PS).
Having analysed the asphalt layers deformation data obtained from
the cores that were taken in the mostly rutted pavement structures (No.
27 and No. 19) and in the least rutted pavement structures (No. 11 and
No. 12), it could be stated that in the period of 5 years of road
operation plastic deformations were formed in the wearing course of
pavement.
Initiation of defects in both traffic lanes of pavement structures
of the test section was monitored from the very beginning of
experimental road operation. And only one transverse crack was recorded
in 2010 in the pavement structure No. 27. No more defects were detected
after 5 years of road operation.
[FIGURE 4 OMITTED]
5. Economic evaluation of asphalt pavement layers of different
composition
The costs of constructing 1 km long asphalt pavement of the test
section (Fig. 5) were calculated for the pavement structures No. 10-19,
No. 26 and No. 27, the structural layers of which were laid from
different materials. Cost estimations were made with the help of the
computer software SISTELA, based on March 2012 market prices.
The above figure shows that the most expensive is the construction
of asphalt pavements of the structures No. 11 (1377.4 thousand LTL
(400.4 thousand Euro)); SMA 11 S with PMB, AC16 AS with PMB, AC 32 Ps)
and No. 12 (1347.1 thousand LTL; SMA 11 S with PMB, PMB, AC 16 AS, AC 32
PS), the cheapest--No. 18 (1224.4 thousand LTL (355.9 thousand Euro));
AC 11 VS, AC 16 [AS.sup.6], AC 32 PS) and No. 26 (1197.7 thousand LTL
(348.2 thousand Euro)); AC 11 VS, AC 16 AS, AC 32 PS6).
When selecting the most rational asphalt pavement the Simple
Additive Weighing Method (SAW) was used. The following significance
criteria were assumed: modulus of elasticity of the structure
(significance coefficient 0. 35), rut depth (significance
coefficient--0.15) and the cost of constructing 1 km of asphalt pavement
layers (significance coefficient--0.5). The calculated efficiency
coefficients of the structures are given in Fig. 6.
Having made calculations by the SAW methodology the distribution of
structures with asphalt pavement layers of different mixtures was
determined based on the efficiency coefficient which describes pavement
quality. The top four pavement structures could be distinguished with
the efficiency coefficient [greater than or equal to] 0.90: the
structure No. 26 (A = 0.97); the structure No. 16 (A = 0.94); the
structure No. 14 (A = 0.93); the structure No. 19 (A = 0.92).
6. General conclusions
1. Having analysed the volume and composition of heavy traffic of
the test section in 710 m length and 27 different experimental pavement
structures, it was determined that the largest destructive impact on
asphalt pavement structure is caused by a two-axle truck tractor with
three-axle semitrailer and heavy-weight vehicles with three axles and
four axles. The share of vehicles of the above-mentioned classes in the
total flow of heavy traffic is 18.5%, 32.0% and 5.0%, respectively.
2. Having analysed and assessed the data of bearing capacity and
the rut depth in a period of 5 year operation of twelve asphalt pavement
structures selected for the research, it could be stated that the
mentioned indices have no correlation. The bearing capacity of all
asphalt pavement structures ([greater than or equal to] 460 MPa) is
sufficient and have no impact on the initiation of ruts after 5 years of
road operation and the passage of 310 000 equivalent standard 100 kN
axle loads. In case if the baring capacity of asphalt pavement structure
is sufficient, the occurrence of ruts is directly dependent on the
properties of asphalt wearing course. After 5 years of road operation
the highest bearing capacity were determined:
--No. 14 (E = 643 MPa; where asphalt wearing course is from AC 11
VS with the 100% of granite aggregates, asphalt binder course is from AC
16 AS with the 50% of the fraction 8/11 and 11/16 of granite rubble and
50% of fraction 0/8 of crushed gravel aggregate mixture, asphalt base
course is from AC 32 PS with the 100% of dolomite aggregates).
Asphalt pavement structures of the lowest bearing capacity are as
follows:
--No. 17 (E = 460 MPa; where asphalt wearing course is from AC 11
VS with the 100% of granite aggregates, asphalt binder course is from AC
16 AS with the 100% of the crushed granite aggregate mixture, asphalt
base course is from AC 32 PS with the 100% of dolomite aggregates).
3. Analysis and assessment of the tendencies of rut depth in
asphalt pavement structures showed that the depth of the right rut is
larger than that of the left rut, therefore the depth of the right rut
was assumed as a criterion for the assessment of pavement structures.
After 5 years of road operation the least rut depth (after the passage
of 310 000 equivalent standard 100 kN axle loads) was determined in the
following asphalt pavement structure:
--No. 12: the largest rut depth--3.6 mm (where asphalt wearing
course is from SMA 11 S with the 100% of granite aggregates, asphalt
binder course is from AC 16 AS with the 100% of granite aggregate
mixture, asphalt base course is from AC 32 PS with the 100% of dolomite
aggregates).
The largest rut depth was determined in the following asphalt
pavement structure:
--No. 27: the largest rut depth--6.5 mm (where asphalt wearing and
binder courses is accordingly from AC 11 VS and AC 16 AS with the 100%
of granite aggregate mixture, asphalt base course is from AC 32 PS with
the 50% of dolomite and 50% crushed gravel aggregates).
4. Depending on the relationship between the bearing capacity, rut
depth and construction cost of each pavement structure and on the
significance level of each value determined during economic evaluation
of tested twelve structures, it was found out that the most rational
asphalt pavement structure is No. 26 (where asphalt wearing and binder
courses is accordingly from AC 11 VS and AC 16 AS with the 100% of
granite aggregate mixture, asphalt base course is from AC 32 PS with the
100% crushed gravel aggregates), and the least rational pavement
structure is No. 17 (where asphalt wearing course is from AC 11 VS with
the 100% of granite aggregates, asphalt binder course is from AC 16 AS
with the 100% of the crushed granite aggregate mixture, asphalt base
course is from AC 32 PS with the 100% of dolomite aggregates).
5. Data of the above mentioned research is applicable and had
already been applied in practice for designing asphalt pavement
structures at weight-in-motion posts based on the permissible deflection
and max permissible rut depth methods of pavement structure.
Caption: Fig. 1. The process of experimental research
Caption: Fig. 4. Change in the depth of the right rut of the loaded
traffic lane
doi: 10.3846/bjrbe.2013.28
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Received 10 May 2013; accepted 11 June 2013
Laura Ziliute (1) ([mail]), Alfredas Laurinavicius (2)
Dept of Roads, Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, Sauletekio
al. 11, 10223 Vilnius, Lithuania
E-mails: (1) laura.ziliute@vgtu.lt, (2)
alfredas.laurinavicius@vgtu.lt
Table 1. Materials used to construct asphalt pavement layers
No. of Asphalt pavement Asphalt pavement
pavement wearing ourse binder course
structure (4.0 cm) (4.0 cm)
10 SMA 11 S AC 16 AS
11 SMA 11 [S.sub.(PMB)] AC 16 [AS.sub.(PMB)]
12 SMA 11 [S.sub.(PMB)] AC 16 AS
13 AC 11VS AC 16 AS (1)
14 AC 11VS AC 16 AS (2)
15 AC 11VS AC 16 AS (3)
16 AC 11VS AC 16 AS (4)
17 AC 11VS AC 16 AS (5)
18 AC 11VS AC 16 AS (6)
19 AC 11VS AC 16 AS
26 AC 11VS AC 16 AS
27 AC 11VS AC 16 AS
No. of Asphalt pavement
pavement base course
structure (10.0 cm)
10 AC 32 PS
11 AC 32 PS
12 AC 32 PS
13 AC 32 PS
14 AC 32 PS
15 AC 32 PS
16 AC 32 PS
17 AC 32 PS
18 AC 32 PS
19 AC 32 PS
26 AC 32 PS (1)
27 AC 32 PS (7)
Note: (1)--50% granite + 50% granite (11/16), dolomite
(5//8), dolomite 50%, granite 50% (8/11); (2)--50%
granite + 50% granite (8/11, 11/16), crushed gravel
(fine particles); 3--50% dolomite + 50% dolomite (8/11,
11/16), crushed gravel (fine particles); (4)--50%
granite + 50% sand; (5)--100% crushed granite; (6)--100%
gravel; (7)--50% dolomite + 50% gravel.
Fig. 2. Change in [ESAL.sub.100] during the experiment
[ESAL.sub.100]
Year ESAL during ESAL general
a year
2007 20 000 20 000
2008 90 000 110 000
2009 60 000 170 000
2010 60 000 230 000
2011 60 000 290 000
2012 20 000 310 000
Note: Table made from line graph.
Fig. 3. Change in the static modulus of elasticity in the rut of the
loaded traffic lane
No. of structure [E.sub.modulus], MPa
with the different
pavement layers ESAL = 120 000 (2009) ESAL = 310 000 (2012)
10 565 554
11 565 546
12 476 537
13 765 540
14 471 643
15 513 539
16 599 586
17 477 460
18 576 478
19 618 621
26 500 643
27 533 584
Note: Table made from bar graph.
Fig. 5. Distribution of construction costs (1 Euro = 3.44 LTL) of
all three asphalt pavement layers according to the materials used
Cost with VAT, thousand LTL
No. of structure with Installation cost
the different pavement of asphalt
layers pavement layers
10 1313.5
11 1377.4
12 1347.1
13 1258.6
14 1267.3
15 1256.6
16 1253.7
17 1262.3
18 1224.4
19 1256.2
26 1197.7
27 1304.7
Note: Table made from bar graph.
Fig. 6. Efficiency coefficient of structures
with asphalt pavement from different mixtures
No. of structure Rationality
with the different factor
pavement layers
26 0.97
16 0.94
14 0.93
19 0.92
10 0.89
12 0.89
11 0.88
13 0.88
15 0.87
27 0.86
18 0.86
17 0.85
Note: Table made from bar graph.
