Analysis and evaluation of the effect of studded tyres on road pavement and environment (III)/Dygliuotuju padangu poveikio kelio dangai ir aplinkai analize bei vertinimas (III)/ Radzoto riepu ietekmes efekta uz cela segumu un apkartejo vidi analize un izvertejums (III)/Naastrehvide moju teekattele ja keskkonnale analuus ja hindamine (III).
Laurinavicius, Alfredas ; Miskinis, Dainius ; Vaiskunaite, Rasa 等
1. Introduction
In the last several years a number of passenger cars using studded
winter tyres on Lithuanian roads have been gradually decreasing. This
fact is also confirmed by the tyre sellers. Based on their data, 5-7
years ago the sales of studded tyres for passenger cars made 40-60%,
whereas, in the last winter season of 2008 the sales of studded tyres
(and of those prepared for studding) made only 4-8% of the total sales
of winter tyres. Such a low percent of the sales of studded tyres was
influenced by the newly accepted legal acts providing for a future
prohibition of the use of studded tyres on Lithuanian roads. Besides,
the car owners who travel or plan to travel by car to the European Union
(EU) member-states (starting with Poland and further to the south)
choose to buy non-studded winter tyres since the use of studded tyres in
those countries is prohibited.
Based on the above statistical data, it was assumed in the
calculations that in winter 15% of passenger cars use studded winter
tyres. Thus, in the economic evaluation of studded tyres the analysis of
their benefit and damage was carried out, i.e. the following aspects
were analyzed and compared: the price of studded tyres; their effect on
braking distance, fuel costs, road pavement, pavement marking,
initiation of particulate matter (PM) and on the increase in noise
emissions (Laurinavicius et al. 2009; Vaiskunaite et al. 2009).
2. Accident losses caused by passenger cars using non-studded and
studded tyres
Based on data of the Association of Companies for Road Vehicle
State Technical Inspection Transeksta, according to the number of road
vehicles presented for the initial technical inspection Lithuania has
~1100000 of the used passenger cars use, of which 15% (~165 000 units)
are equipped with winter tyres having studs. The driver, having acquired
winter tyres, uses them on the average for 4 years. Thus, the additional
costs for the Lithuanian drivers (between studded and non-studded winter
tyres) will average to 1.91-2.39 mln EUR/year:
[K.sub.[DELTA]P] = [DELTA][K.sub.ZD] x [T.sub.ZD]/[P.sub.T] =
(46.34 - 57.92) x 165000/4 = 1.91 - 2.39 mln EUR/year, (1)
where [K.sub.[DELTA]P]--additional annual costs for the Lithuanian
drivers having acquired studded winter tyres, mln EUR/year;
[DELTA][K.sub.ZD]--difference between the prices of studded and
non-studded winter tyres, EUR; [T.sub.ZD]--number of passenger cars
equipped with studded winter tyres, units; [P.sub.T]--average service
life of studded winter tyres, years.
If a theoretical assumption is made that the use of studded tyres
in winter is obligatory, the additional costs for the drivers
([K.sub.[DELTA]PT]) (between studded and non-studded winter tyres) would
amount to 12.74-15.93 mln EUR/year:
[K.sub.[DELTA]P] = (46.34 - 57.92) x 1100000/4 = 12.74-15.93 mln
EUR/year. (2)
Many of world-wide investigations to determine a percentage
difference in road accidents using studded and non-studded winter tyres
showed that when using passenger cars with studded tyres on snowy or icy
road pavement the accident risk is reduced by 5%, on dry and wet
pavement--by 2%. When using passenger cars with studded tyres under
various (all) traffic conditions the accident risk is reduced by up to
4%.
Having calculated the average of accidents of 2005-2008 winter
seasons and the distribution of accident victims according to pavement
condition, it could be stated that in this period the average number of
accidents was 2329 where 267 people were killed and 2757 were injured.
Since no data is available on the type of winter tyres (studded or
non-studded), it was assumed in the calculations that 15% of
accident-involved passenger cars were using studded tyres and
85%--non-studded tyres. Correspondingly, accidents were calculated where
the passenger cars with studded tyres were damaged. In the calculations
the effect of studded tyres on the accident risk was taken into
consideration (i.e. the accident risk is reduced by 4% on the average).
It was calculated that 15% of the Lithuanian road users used
studded tyres in winter, therefore, on the average 1.6 lives were saved
and 16.54 less people were injured every year compared to the case if
all passenger cars had used non-studded tyres. If accident costs are
multiplied by these reductions it is obtained that due to the use of
studded tyres in Lithuania the damage caused by road accidents is
reduced by 1.81 mln EUR/year on the average. In the further analysis of
this research, when calculating damage caused by road accidents, the
damage (theoretical) caused by vehicles with studded tyres (from 1
November to 1 April) was compared to that with non-studded tyres.
Definitely, this calculation is more theoretical since in this case a
legal act would be necessary prohibiting the use of winter non-studded
tyres. Accident-caused damage when using passenger cars with non-studded
and studded tyres is given in Fig. 1.
Though, when using passenger cars with studded tyres under various
traffic conditions, the risk of accidents is reduced only by 4%, a
number of people killed and injured on the Lithuanian roads in the
recent 4 years shows that the average theoretical difference in the use
of passenger cars with non-studded and studded tyres makes 12.86 mln EUR
per year (Elvik, Vaa 2004; Kapski et al. 2008; Tampere et al. 2009).
3. The effect of winter tyres on fuel costs
Vehicle fuel costs are increased by 15% on icy and snowy road
pavements compared to dry roads. It was determined in the foreign
researches that when using a passenger car with studded tyres the fuel
costs increase from 1.2% to 2% compared to non-studded tyres (Scheibe
2002; Zubeck et al. 2004) and according to some sources--even from 4% to
8%. Fuel costs in winter depend not only on the type of tyres (studded
or non-studded) but also on road maintenance, driving speed, mode of
driving, etc. The Vehicle Operating Costs (VehOC's) of a passenger
car (EUR/1000 veh-km) under different pavement roughness in the year
2008 are given in Fig. 2.
With the help of Highway Development and Management model-4 (HDM-4)
the VehOC's under different pavement roughness were calculated. In
the model the fuel costs of passenger cars make 30-40% of the total
transport expenditures. In the calculations of this research it was
assumed that the fuel costs of a passenger car make 35% of its total
operating costs.
The annual average daily traffic (AADT) and its composition on the
roads of different groups by the different class of vehicles in 2008 are
given in Table 1. The AADT on all the roads of national significance is
1414 vehicles per day, of which 1087 are passenger cars.
The AADT of passenger cars in the different group of roads
(Accumulation and renewal of traffic data of the roads of national
significance, 2008) is given in Fig. 3.
The annual mileage by vehicles is the total amount of vehicle
kilometres per year on the considered road or its section. This index
reflects the size of the national vehicle fleet and the volume of its
use. The annual mileage AM is calculated by the Eq (3):
AM = AADTxLx365; (3)
where AM--the annual mileage of the vehicle kilometres per year,
veh-km/year; AADT--annual average daily traffic of the road section per
day, vpd; L- length of the road section, km.
The annual mileage by vehicles per a group of roads is calculated
as the sum of annual mileage on the separate sections of this group of
roads AM. Based on the previously analyzed statistical traffic data and
the length of Lithuanian roads of national significance, the annual
mileage was calculated for the main and national roads in 2006-2008
(Fig. 4).
Having made the analysis of traffic volume of the roads of national
significance, it was calculated that from 1 November to 1 April the
annual mileage by passenger cars makes 35.80% of the total annual
mileage.
Based on the statistical traffic data, traffic composition and the
calculated annual mileage, it is possible to calculate how many
kilometres in the different group of roads are travelled by passenger
cars per year, how many kilometres are travelled in winter and how many
kilometres are travelled by passenger cars with studded tyres.
In the beginning of 2009 the average pavement roughness on the main
roads was 2.27 m/km, on national roads--3.16 m/km, and on regional
roads--4.50 m/km. Based on the calculated annual mileage by passenger
cars with studded tyres in winter (Fig. 5), the average pavement
roughness and the difference in fuel costs under the existing pavement
roughness (Fig. 2), it is possible to calculate what is the increase in
the annual fuel costs for the road users travelling by passenger cars
with studded tyres:
[C.sub.F] = [AM.sub.PC] x [RV.sub.PRFC]; (4)
where [C.sub.F]--the annual fuel costs for the road users
travelling by passenger cars with studded tyres, mln EUR/year;
[AM.sub.PC]--the annual mileage by passenger cars with studded tyres in
winter per year, veh-km/year; [RV.sub.PRFC]--the ratio between values of
the average pavement roughness and of the difference in fuel costs under
the existing pavement roughness per kilometer, EUR/km.
It is possible to calculate by the Eq (4):
On main roads:
205.90x[10.sup.6]x3.51x[10.sup.-9]=0.72 mln EUR/year;
On national roads:
164.00x[10.sup.6]x3.72x[10.sup.-9]=0.61 mln EUR/year;
On regional roads:
82.91x[l0.sup.6]x4.22x[l0.sup.-9]=0.35 mln EUR/year;
Total: 1.68 mln EUR/year.
It was determined that when using passenger cars with studded tyres
their fuel costs are increased by 4%, the road users (owners or managers
of vehicles), solely on the roads of national significance, incur the
additional fuel costs of 1.68 mln EUR/year.
Theoretical damage to the road users due to the increased fuel
costs, if all passenger cars had to obligatory use studded tyres in
winter, solely on the roads of national significance, would make 11.24
mln EUR/year of additional fuel costs. It is possible to calculate:
[C.sub.TF] = [AM.sub.TPC] x [RV.sub.PRFC]; (5)
where [C.sub.TF]--the annual fuel costs for the road users
travelling by passenger cars with studded tyres (if all passenger cars
had to obligatory use studded tyres in winter), mln EUR/year;
[AM.sub.TPC]--the annual mileage by passenger cars with studded tyres in
winter per year (if all passenger cars had to obligatory use studded
tyres in winter, from 1 November to 1 April), veh-km/year;
[RV.sub.PRFC]--the ratio between values of the average pavement
roughness and of the difference in fuel costs under the existing
pavement roughness per kilometer, EUR/km.
It is possible to calculate by the Eq (5):
On main roads:
1372.70x[10.sup.6]x3.52x[10.sup.-9] = 4.83 mln EUR/year;
On national roads:
1093.10x[10.sup.6]x3.73x[10.sup.-9] = 4.08 mln EUR/year;
On regional roads:
552.70x[10.sup.6]x4.22x[10.sup.-9 = 2.33 mln EUR/year;
Total: 11.24 mln EUR/year.
4. Damage to the environment due to the initiation of particulate
matter and noise from winter tyres
Global changes affecting climate change are greenhouse effect and
the depletion of the ozone layer. Lithuania, having ratified the Kyoto
Protocol in 2002, like other EU countries committed itself in 2008-2012
to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions by 8% compared to the year 1990
(Environmental Impact Assessment of the Reconstruction of the Road A5
Kaunas-Marijampole-Suwalki 22.0-56.5 km section; Environmental Impact
Assessment of the Vilnius City Southern By-pass Between the Roads A1
Vilniaus-Kaunas-Klaipeda and A3 Vilnius-Minsk 0.0-7.6 km section).
Gases, exhaust from road vehicles and affecting regional pollution, are
as follows: nitrous oxide (NOx), sulphur oxide (S[O.sub.2]), volatile
organic compounds (VOCs), carbon monoxide (CO), particulate matter
([PM.sub.2.5]). The amount and composition of pollutants exhaust from
road vehicles into the ambient air depend on the annual average daily
traffic, share of heavy traffic, annual mileage, fuel quality, technical
characteristics of vehicles, number of stops and starts, traffic
congestions, etc. (Gustafsson et al. 2008; Ketzel et al. 2007; Kupiainen
2007; Schmit, Schlender 2003; Vallius 2005).
Taking into consideration the impact of one of vehicle-generated
pollution sources, i.e. studded tyres, on the environment, the analysis
was focused only on particulate matter. Particulate matter is a mixture
of particles and liquid droplets (aerosols) suspended in the ambient air
and consisting of different components--acids, sulphates, nitrates,
metals, organic compounds, soil particles, dust, smut. In winter road
vehicles, especially those using studded tyres, cause also a secondary
pollution with particulate matter. This means that the studded winter
tyres destroy road pavement, lift into the ambient air the remnants of
destroyed pavement, the spread sand and salt mixture and uncollected
mud, and when using such tyres on "bare" road pavement
(without ice or snow)--fine and very dangerous micro elements initiated
during traction. The Swedish researchers have determined that a
passenger car with studded tyres having travelled 1 km "mills
out" about 5-12 g of asphalt particles on a rural road and about
2-5 g on a city street. In cities the wear of asphalt pavements is
slower due to a lower driving speed (Haal et al. 2008; Norman, Johansson
2006; Raisanen et al. 2005).
It was assumed in the calculations that one vehicle with studded
tyres having travelled one kilometre on a rural road "mills
out" 2 g of asphalt particles.
When assessing the effect of studded tyres on the initiation of
particulate mater it was assumed that 15% of the total number of
passenger cars in winter (i.e. 5 months per year) uses studded tyres.
Having made the analysis of traffic volume on the roads of national
significance it was calculated that from 1 November to 1 April the
passenger cars travel 35.8% on he average of the total annual mileage.
Based on the calculated annual mileage by passenger cars with studded
tyres per year (Fig. 6) it is possible to calculate how much particulate
matter is "milled out" from the road pavement by the studs of
winter tyres on the roads of national significance:
[Q.sub.T] = [AM.sub.PC] x [Q.sub.G]; (6)
where [Q.sub.T]--the total quantity of asphalt particles, which
"milled out" from the road pavement passenger cars with
studded tyres per year on the roads of national significance, t/year;
[AM.sub.PC]--the annual mileage by passenger cars with studded tyres in
winter per year, veh-km/year; [Q.sub.G]--the quantity of asphalt
particles, which "mills out" from the road pavement one
vehicle with studded tyres having travelled one kilometre, g/km.
It is possible to calculate by the Eq (6):
On main roads:
205.9x[l0.sup.6]x2 = 411.80 t/year;
On national roads:
164.0x[10.sup.6]x2 = 328.00 t/year;
On regional roads:
82.9x[l0.sup.6]x2 = 165.80 t/year;
Total: 905.60 t/year.
The cost of ambient air pollution is given in Fig. 6 (Feasibility
Study for the Need of Repair Works of the Roads and Bridges of National
Significance).
Based on a number of asphalt particles "milled out" by
the studs of winter tyres from the asphalt pavement on main, national
and regional roads and the cost of particulate matter pollution in a
rural territory (Fig. 6), the damage from the studs was calculated:
[D.sub.TS] = [Q.sub.T] x [C.sub.RT]; (7)
where [D.sub.TS]--the damage of the tyres studs on the roads
national significance per year, mln EUR/year; [Q.sub.T]--the total
quantity of asphalt particles, which "milled out" from the
road pavement passenger cars with studded tyres per year on the roads of
national significance, t/year; [C.sub.RT]--the cost of particulate
matter pollution in a rural territory, EUR/t.
It is possible to calculate by the Eq (7):
On main roads:
411.80x37500.29 = 15.44 mln EUR/year;
On national roads:
328.00x37500.29 = 12.30 mln EUR/year;
On regional roads:
165.80x37500.29 = 6.22 mln EUR/year;
Total: 33.96 mln EUR/year.
In Lithuania, in a period of winter season almost 15% of passenger
cars use studded winter tyres which exhaust into the ambient air
particulate matter and negatively affect human health. It was determined
that this damage, solely on the roads of national significance, amounts
to 33.96 mln EUR/year.
Taking into consideration the use of studded tyres on the local
roads (also in a residential area, especially in city streets), damage
to the public would be increased even more. Due to the lack of
statistical data on a number of kilometres travelled on these roads,
damage to the public due to the increased particulate matter was not
assessed.
For this purpose a theoretical damage was calculated which would be
caused by particulate matter if all passenger cars in a winter season
(from 1 November to 1 April) had to obligatory use only studded tyres. A
theoretical amount of asphalt particles "milled out" from the
pavement of the roads of national significance, if all passenger cars
used only studded tyres in winter, would amount to 6037.00 t/year:
[T.sub.PM] = [AM.sub.TPC] x [Q.sub.G]; (8)
where [T.sub.PM]--the theoretical damage of particulate matter from
the tyres studs on the roads national significance per year (if all
passenger cars in a winter season (from 1 November to 1 April) had to
obligatory use only studded tyres), t/year; [AM.sub.TPC]--the annual
mileage by passenger cars with studded tyres in winter per year (if all
passenger cars had to obligatory use studded tyres in winter, from 1
November to 1 April), veh-km/year; [Q.sub.G]--the quantity of asphalt
particles, which "mills out" from the road pavement one
vehicle with studded tyres having travelled one kilometre, g/km.
It is possible to calculate by the Eq (8):
On main roads:
1372.7x[10.sup.6]x2 = 2745.40 t/year;
On national roads:
1093.1x[l0.sup.6]x2 = 2186.20 t/year;
On regional roads:
552.7x[10.sup.6]x2 = 1105.40 t/year;
Total: 6037.00 t/year.
A theoretical damage to the public due to particulate matter
"milled out" and exhaust into the ambient air would amount to
226.42 mln EUR.
Noise is a disorderly mixture of sound waves of various strength
and frequency, unusual to human ear and causing unpleasant sensations.
Noise damages hearing, irritates the central nervous system, changes
human character and behaviour, induce crudity and aggression of an
individual. All over the world road transport is recognised as the main
source of noise.
When a studded tyre rolls over the road surface the increased tyre
vibration causes noise. A higher traction of studded tyres and road
pavement, compared to that of non-studded tyres, increases noise
emission by 3-5 dBA (Kropp et al. 2007; Peeters, Blokland 2007).
In Sweden, when the use of studded tyres was reduced by 20% the
noise emissions decreased by 1.0-1.5 dBA. In Lithuania, in the last two
winter seasons studded tyres were used by about 15% of all passenger
cars. Based on the Swedish research data it could be stated that having
prohibited the use of studded tyres in Lithuania the general noise level
would be decreased by 0.75-1.13 dBA. The specialists have calculated the
damage to the human health caused by the equivalent noise level in a
day. The cost of noise emissions are given in Fig. 7 (Environmental
Impact Assessment of the Reconstruction of the Road A5
Kaunas-Marijampole-Suwalki 22.0-56.5 km section).
The cost of noise emissions shows that with the increased
equivalent noise level only by 5 dBA the damage to the human health has
been significantly increasing. It is almost impossible to determine the
noise-caused damage to the public, since in the different noise
diapasons the damage to the human health varies unevenly, besides,
people use to live at a different distance from the main transport
arteries and no exact data is available on what is a number of residents
living close to them.
5. The effect of studded tyres on road pavement marking
Studded tyres intensively damage road pavement surface. The wear of
road pavement is considerably larger compared to the use of the other
type of tyres. At present horizontal marking of Lithuanian roads is
carried out with paint or polymer materials. The service life and
warranty of horizontal marking are dependent on the designation of lines
and the materials used. Using polymer materials the marking can have a
thin layer or a full thickness. When a continuous edge line is marked
with paint the service life of marking is two years. When the centre
road line is marked with paint and other horizontal marking is carried
out the service life is one year. When horizontal marking is made by
polymer materials the service life of the marking is twice as long, i.e.
when using polymer materials the service life of full-thickness marking
is four years, while the service life of the above mentioned thin-layer
marking materials--two years. Certainly, the use of polymer materials
for horizontal marking generates higher costs. Comparison of the costs
is given in Fig. 8.
Studded tyres cause the wear of all types of horizontal marking at
pedestrian crossings, of continuous and discontinuous marking lines on
the carriageway. In a day time horizontal marking can visually look as
of sufficiently good quality, though in a dark period of the day it does
not serve the main function, i.e. to reflect light, since a specific
density of light in darkness is too low. The main reason--the marking
surface is polluted with unreflecting materials. Horizontal marking is
mostly damaged by studded tyres when it is polluted with the
"milled out" bitumen particles from asphalt pavement in winter
and becomes poorly visible in a dark time of the day. When a marking
line is passed by studded tyres the studs stick into the line and leave
small depressions with the remnants of bitumen particles.
We did not succeed to find any accurate scientific investigations
on how much the service life of horizontal marking would be extended if
the vehicles used no studded tyres. However, all the road specialists
unanimously admit that studded tyres reduce the durability of horizontal
marking. A very cautious forecast was assumed in the calculations that
with the use of studded tyres the wear of horizontal marking is 10%
faster. Correspondingly, it could be apparently stated that in a year
due to the use of studded tyres the wear of horizontal marking is faster
and the public looses ~10% of funds allocated to the marking. In the
last two years 8.69-10.14 mln EUR was allocated each year to the
renovation of marking on the roads of national significance. Besides,
additional horizontal marking was implemented on the repaired and
reconstructed road sections.
Based on the above, it could be stated that due to a faster wear of
horizontal marking the public looses 0.871.01 mln EUR every year.
6. Economic evaluation of winter tyres (studded and non-studded)
Having made a comparative cost-benefit analysis, a comparison of
studded and non-studded winter tyres and their benefit (additional
costs) for the public, it was determined that it is more cost-effective
for the road users to use non-studded tyres. A comparative cost-benefit
analysis is given in Fig. 9 and Table 2 where positive and negative
factors (pluses and minuses) for the use of studded and non-studded
winter tyres are described.
In winter almost 15% of the road users in Lithuania use studded
tyres on their passenger cars, therefore due to the reduced number of
road accidents (reduced number of people killed and injured) the public
receives the benefit of 1.81 mln EUR. However, due to the more expensive
tyres, increased fuel consumption, damages to horizontal pavement
marking, negative impact of particulate matter on human health the
public incur considerably higher losses amounting even to 38.43-39.07
mln EUR (Baltrenas et al. 2007; 2008; Lama et al. 2007; Radziszewski
2007; Ziari et al. 2007; Zubeck et al. 2004).
7. Conclusions
Based on the inquiry of tyre sellers it was determined that in
Lithuania, in winter season about 15% of passenger cars use winter tyres
with studs.
It was identified that additional costs for the drivers (between
studded and non-studded winter tyres) will amount to 1.91-2.39 mln
EUR/year on average.
Taking into consideration a number of people killed and injured
during road accidents on the roads of Lithuania in 2005-2008, it was
calculated that due to the use of studded tyres the accident-caused
damage is reduced by 1.81 mln EUR/year on average.
When using passenger cars, equipped with studded tyres, the fuel
consumption of these cars is increased by 4%, thus, the road users
(owners or managers of cars) solely on the roads of national
significance incur the additional fuel costs of 1.68 mln EUR/year.
In Lithuania, in a period of winter season about 15% of passenger
cars use studded winter tyres which lift particulate matter and
negatively affect human health. This damage, solely on the roads of
national significance, amounts to 33.96 mln EUR/year.
It was determined that due to the use of studded tyres and faster
wear of horizontal marking the public incur 0.87-1.01 mln EUR of
additional costs every year.
In winter about 15% of the road users in Lithuania use studded
tyres on their passenger cars, therefore due to the reduced number of
road accidents (reduced number of people killed and injured) the public
receives the benefit of 1.81 mln EUR. However, due to the more expensive
tyres, increased fuel consumption, damages to horizontal pavement
marking, negative impact of particulate matter on human health the
public incur considerably higher losses amounting even to 38.43-39.07
mln EUR.
doi: 10.3846/bjrbe.2010.24
Received 21 October 2009; accepted 03 August 2010
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Alfredas Laurinavicius (1), Dainius Miskinis (2), Rasa Vaiskunaite
(3), Algimantas Laurinavicius (4)
(1, 2) Dept of Roads, Vilnius Gediminas Technical University,
Sauletekio al. 11, 10223 Vilnius, Lithuania
(3) Dept of Environmental Protection, Vilnius Gediminas Technical
University, Sauletekio al. 11, 10223 Vilnius, Lithuania
(4) Dept of Finance, Vilnius University, Sauletekio al. 9, 10223
Vilnius, Lithuania E-mails: (1) alfredas.laurinavicius@vgtu.lt; (2)
dainius.miskinis@vgtu.lt; (3) rasa.vaiskunaite@vgtu.lt; (4)
algislaur@gmail.com
Table 1. The AADT of all the classes of vehicles in the different
group of roads (Accumulation and renewal of traffic data of the roads
of national significance, 2008)
AADT, vpd
Passenger
Road group Total Motorcycle car (PC) Minibus Bus
Main roads 8 100 11 5 989 288 66
National roads 2 092 0 1 663 80 19
Regional roads 375 2 297 17 4
All roads 1 414 2 1 087 54 13
AADT, vpd
Light Medium Medium
Road group truck truck1 truck2 3-axle 4-axle
Main roads 369 90 198 77 131
National roads 102 28 51 21 19
Regional roads 17 9 9 6 4
All roads 66 20 34 15 18
AADT, vpd
Light
(motorcycle,
PC, minibus,
Road group 5-axle Tractor light truck) Heavy
Main roads 864 17 6 657 1 443
National roads 95 14 1 846 246
Regional roads 7 3 333 42
All roads 98 7 1 209 205
Table 2. Economic evaluation of winter tyres (studded and non-studded)
Factors
Evaluation criteria Negative Positive
Difference in the Negative --
price of studded and -(1.91-2.39)
non-studded tyres mln EUR
Damage due to road -- Positive
accidents + 1.81 mln EUR
Effect of tyres on Negative --
fuel costs -1.68 mln EUR
Effect of studded Negative --
tyres on the -33.96 mln
initiation of EUR/year
particulate matter
Damage due to Large Small
tyre-generated noise
Effect of tyres on Negative -z
pavement marking -(0.87-1,01)
mln EUR
TOTAL -(38.43-39.07) + 1.81
mln EUR/year mln EUR/year
Evaluation criteria Notes
Difference in the The difference between one studded and
price of studded and non-studded winter tyre is 11.58-14.48 EUR;
non-studded tyres for 4 tyres 46.34-57.92 EUR. Additional costs
for the drivers (between studded and
non-studded winter tyres) will amount to
1.91-2.39 mln EUR/year on the average.
Damage due to road Due to the use of studded tyres in Lithuania
accidents the damage caused by road accidents is reduced
by 1.81 mln EUR/year on the average.
Effect of tyres on The use of passenger cars equipped with
fuel costs studded tyres increases fuel consumption by
4%, therefore the road users (the owners and
managers of passenger cars), solely on the
roads of national significance, incur 1.68 mln
EUR of additional fuel costs per year.
Effect of studded Passenger cars with studded tyres lift
tyres on the particulate matter which negatively affects
initiation of human health. During the whole winter season
particulate matter 15% of passenger cars use studded winter tyres
which lift particulate matter and negatively
affect human health. This damage, solely on
the roads of national significance, amounts to
33.96 mln EUR/year.
Damage due to It is possible to calculate damage caused by
tyre-generated noise studded tyres for the public only for a
certain road (street) section but even in this
case the special investigations are necessary.
Effect of tyres on Due to the wear of horizontal marking the
pavement marking public looses 0.87-1.01 mln EUR of additional
costs every year.
TOTAL When using studded winter tyres the public
incurs more damage than benefit.
Fig. 1. Determination of accident-caused theoretical damage
when using passenger cars with non-studded and studded
tyres (Accumulation and renewal of traffic data of the roads of
national significance, 2008)
Studded tyres Non-studded tyres
Injured 144.11 150.11
Killed 164.76 171.63
Note: Table made from bar graph.
Fig. 2. Evaluation of the fuel costs of passenger cars using
non-studded and studded tyres (Accumulation and renewal of traffic
data of the roads of national significance, 2008)
The fuel costs of passenger cars,
EUR/1000 veh-km
The pavement roughness, m/km
Non-studded Studded
tyres tyres
1 84.95 88.33
2 87.78 91.29
3 93.56 97.31
4 99.24 103.22
5 105.02 109.22
6 110.90 115.33
7 117.18 121.87
8 123.57 128.50
9 129.95 135.14
Note: Table made from line graph.
Fig. 3. The AADT of passenger cars in the different group of
roads (Accumulation and renewal of traffic data of the roads of
national significance, 2008)
Main roads 5 989
National roads 1 663
Regional roads 297
All roads 1 087
Note: Table made from pie chart.
Fig. 4. The calculated annual mileage in the different group of
roads depending on traffic volume and length of road sections
2006 2007 2008
Main roads 4302 518 5186
Main roads A1-A2 1913 2389 2275
Main roads A1-A18 2389 2796 2911
National roads 3128 3623 3841
Main and national rods 7430 8808 9027
Note: Table made from bar graph.
Fig. 5. The calculated annual mileage in the different group of
roads depending on the season of the year
The annual mileage of passenger
cars, [10.sup.6] veh-km/year
The different group of roads
All year With studded
round In winter tyres in winter
Main roads 3834.40 1372.70 205.90
National roads 3053.3 1093.10 164.00
Regional roads 1543.90 552.70 82.90
Note: Table made from bar graph.
Fig. 6. The cost (EUR) of air pollutants within the urban
territory (Accumulation and renewal of traffic data of the roads
of national significance, 2008)
The title of the air pollutants
The cost of the air pollutants, EUR/year
S[O.sub.2] 2110.75
V[O.sub.C] 587.06
N[O.sub.x] 3047.67
[KD.sub.2.5] 187 501.74
Note: Table made from bar graph.
Fig. 7. The cost (EUR) of noise emissions per year
(Accumulation and renewal of traffic data of the roads of
national significance, 2008)
The cost of noise emissions,
EUR/year
The equivalent noise level in a day, dBA
50 9.35
55 28.12
60 49.21
65 69.16
70 114.83
75 147.65
Note: Table made from line graph.
Fig. 8. Preliminary cost of horizontal marking (Accumulation
and renewal of traffic data of the roads of national significance,
2008)
The different group of marking
Preliminary cost of horizontal marking, EUR/[m.sup.2]
Marking by polymer materials (thin-thickness) 15.93
Marking by polymer materials (full-thickness) 22.88
Marking by paint 6.37
Note: Table made from bar graph.
Fig. 9. Economic evaluation of winter tyres (studded and
non-studded) (A--additional costs for the drivers due to studded
tyres; B--additional costs for the drivers due to non-studded
tyres; C--damage due to road accidents; D--effect of tyres on fuel
costs; E--effect of studded tyres on the initiation of particulate
matter; F--damage due to tyre-generated noise; G--effect of tyres
on pavement marking; H--total damage)
The positive and negative factors
of the winter tyres, mln EUR
Evaluation criteria
A -1.91
B -2.39
C +1.81
D -1.69
E -33.97
F -1.01
G -39.07
H +1.81
Note: Table made from bar graph.
