Lithuanian mineral resources, their reserves and possibilities for their usage in road building/Lietuvos mineraliniai istekliai, siu zaliavu atsargos bei vietiniu medziagu naudojimo keliu tiesyboje galimybes/Lietuvas mineralu resursi, to rezerves un iespejamais pielietojums celu buvnieciba/Leedu mineraalmaterjaliressursid, nende reservid ja kasutusvoimalus tee-ehituses.
Skrinskas, Skirmantas ; Gasiuniene, Vyda Elena ; Laurinavicius, Alfredas 等
1. Introduction
Mineral resources are natural mineral materials occurring in the
underground and used for production or other purposes. According to the
amount and value of their extraction and utilization, the most important
mineral materials in the world are those used for construction industry
and road building, i.e. crushed stone, freestone and finishing stone,
gravel and sand, raw materials of energy resources (oil, coal, peat),
iron ore, limestone for cement industry and agriculture, clay, rock
salt, etc. With the improving technologies in mining and processing
industry and increasing number of population in the world, in order to
maintain the already reached standard of life, the amount of world
widely extracted resources has extremely increased--in the last century
their extraction has been larger than in the whole lifetime of humanity.
The volume of extraction of all kinds of mineral resources shows
that valuable resources are not only those glittering as gold. More than
29 billion t of mineral resources are extracted in the world per year,
of which about 17 billion t (or up to 60%) consist of gravel, sand and
crushed stone produced by crushing solid rocks or shingle. This means
that according to the volume of extraction gravel, sand and crushed
stone take the first place, and in monetary terms - the second place in
the world and this makes the mining industry very important in various
aspects. Lithuania is rich enough in what was settled from the seas and
lagoons several hundred million years ago and what was left by the
glaciers having occupied the territory of Lithuania for several times.
Mineral resources, called as local and used in construction, road
building and production of building materials, are familiar to many of
us from the childhood, they are surrounding and habitual to us and
frequently nobody thinks that when used scientifically justified and
rationally it is a significant part of the property of the state.
Besides the widely spread mineral resources, Lithuania has valuable
resources found in single areas iron ore, anhydrite, rock salt, oil.
At present 17 kinds of mineral resources have been found and
investigated in more or less detail (Table 1). Today, as well as
earlier, 10 kinds of resources are extracted, such as dolomite, peat,
limestone, clay, gravel, oil, marl, opoka (gaize), sapropel, however,
extraction of the last three kinds is carried out discontinuously, and
that of oil--was started only in 1990. Lithuanian mining companies
create working places, promote regional development, cheapen the prices
of new infrastructure projects by short-distance transportation of
materials, adjust the recultivated excavation sites to the state and
public demands, pay various taxes, of which the tax on the use of
underground resources supplements the state budget with a several tens
of a mln LTL every year. By new legislation decision the state tax on
most of national resources has increased twice since 2010.
2. Reserves of mineral resources
In the Classification of Solid Mineral Resources of the Republic of
Lithuania all the reserves of mineral resources are classified by three
criteria: geological exploration, investigation of utilization
possibilities and economic value. Since economical value and utilization
possibilities of resources most frequently depend on the development of
technologies, legal background, economic conditions of the state and
market changes, and are variable values, thus, the herein given
information on mineral resources is based on the detail of geological
exploration, i.e. are they explored in detail, in general or prognostic
(detected or supposed).
The total area of mineral resources explored in detail, in general
or prognostic takes only 0.283 mln ha or 4.3% of the territory of
Lithuania. Of them more than half of the total area is taken by peat
resources.
Reliability of resources explored in detail is the largest. Their
value, based on data of the Statistics of Lithuania, in 2007 amounted to
58.3 billion LTL and made 29% of the total value of state property.
The deposits of dolomite, gravel and sand explored in detail and
used for road building and other purposes occur under 6.8 thousand ha or
0.096% of the territory of Lithuania, their value amounts to 3.2 billion
LTL and makes 1.6% of the state property value. According to the state
property value per the area of Lithuanian territory, the value of
explored in detail dolomite and gravel deposits is the most expensive in
the country (30.9% of property value/1% of the territory) compared to
the value of all resources (13.5% of property value/1% of the
territory), roads of national significance (11.5% of property value/1%
of the territory) and the value of forest land and the land of
agricultural designation (2.8% of property value/1% of the territory).
The value of explored in detail of resource lots being in use of
dolomite and gravel deposits per the unit of the occupied area of the
country is 16.6 times higher than the total value of state property
divided by the area of the country.
This state property lies under the land rented for excavation by
the state, under the state or private forests, private land, to be given
back for private ownership, or to be repurchased by state for public
interest. For the state itself this facilitates or burdens the access to
the use of its exclusive ownership--underground resources. This also
strongly influences a continuous rationality of the use of resources
especially in cases of separate land plots which are less than 100 ha
and restricts the public and state interest in a rational and
economically justified use of resources.
Reliability of the amount and quality of mineral resources explored
in general, and especially prognostic ones, is lower than of those
explored in detail, and conditions for their occurrence and mining are
often more complicated, since first of all the resources of better
quality and of more favourable mining conditions were initially
investigated in more detail. A real potential of mineral resources is
made of resources explored in detail and in general, while the
prognostic resources is a reserve for future. The value of resources of
various level of exploration differs not only according to the economic,
public, national security, geopolitical, state cash flows, import-export
balance or other criteria. Those criteria must be determined before
setting priorities for the use of each kind of national resources.
Specific features of geological structure of the underground of our
country determined conditions for the occurrence of mineral resources
(depth, location) and their uneven distribution in respect of the
territory. Almost all kinds of resources occur on the surface or under a
small cover ranging from 1 m to 10 m, more seldom - to several meters.
Only the resources of rock salt, anhydrite and iron ore were detected at
a depth of 300-460 m, the depth of oil is usually higher than 1800 m
from the surface.
Mineral resources of different kinds are distributed unevenly in
respect of the territory of Lithuania, their distribution by kind,
amount and detail of exploration within the territory of Lithuanian
counties are given in Fig. 1.
[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]
The largest amount of resources, found in Lithuania, is of the most
frequently used gravel and sand, limestone and dolomite. The largest
part of explored gravel and sand resources is located in Vilnius,
Kaunas, Utena, Alytus and Taurage counties. All the detected deposits of
dolomite and limestone are located in the northern part of the country
in the territory of Siauliai and Panevezys (only dolomite) counties.
Any excavation of mineral resources, without doubt, affects the
customary equilibrium of natural environment, however, the nature and
extent of this impact is a function of interaction between the type of
raw material to be excavated, natural conditions, excavation duration
and technical-economical-environmental-social possibilities.
Environmental impact caused by excavation of a larger part of the
currently used deposits of mineral resources is not significant, since
the cover sediment, spoil, the extracted raw materials and their
processing waste according to the regulations of the Directive
2006/21/EC on the Management of Waste from the Extractive Industries
(the Mining Waste Directive) meet the definition of inert materials
having no negative impact on the environment. At present all the mineral
resources of our country, with the exception of oil, are excavated only
in open-pit mines (quarries). The depth of gravel, sand, clay, peat and
dolomite quarries usually amounts to 6-12 m, of limestone and opoka
(gaize) up to 15-30 m, and only the deepest quarry where Triassic clay
is extracted is about 50 m deep. Only in several quarries (peat,
limestone, dolomite, sand) the ground water or underground water level
is being lowered due to self flowing or pumping up. After excavation of
mineral resources there is usually a possibility to recultivate the
excavated areas in a way not to only neutralize excavation consequences,
not to decrease and even increase a functional-aesthetic value of the
landscape.
It is very important to harmonize the restored (created) geosystem
with the surrounding landscape, land-tenure and regional demands. It
often happens that the recultivated pits and quarries are adjusted to
public demands: Kazokiskes dump in the former Kazokiskes gravel pit,
Lampedziai and Kunigiskes water bodies in the former gravel pits,
Ukmerge motor cross track "Versme" in the recultivated part of
Radiskes gravel pit, Pakruojis motor cross track in the recultivated
Petrasiunai dolomite quarry, etc.
3. Extraction of mineral resources in Lithuania
The legal base of Lithuania provides for that the underground and
its mineral resources is an exclusive property of the state or the state
has an exclusive right to the underground --this emphasizes that the
objects important to national security must be owned by state. Assurance
of the rational use of resources is of a public interest, without
mineral resources Lithuania would have very limited as well as much more
expensive possibilities to develop and improve transportation
infrastructure sector which is one of the strategically important bases
of national economy. The main axis of this sector--road building and
maintenance --consumes the largest part of the locally excavated and
properly processed raw materials. Mineral resources are necessary for
construction, energy sector, agriculture, high technologies, food
industry, health care and other systems (Jonynas et al. 2004; Staponkus
2010). The benefit for the public is created not by the existence of
resources itself, but by the most optimum final material production and
adjustment of their physical, mechanical and chemical properties for
creating public welfare.
At the beginning of 2009, the permits for the extraction of solid
mineral resources were issued to 244 enterprises. Most enterprises, even
185, are engaged in the extraction of gravel and sand resources,
35--peat, 10--clay, 7--dolomite, and only several enterprises make
business from the extraction of other mineral resources. The total about
65% of the resources explored in detail is designated and is under the
usage--mainly gravel, limestone, dolomite and peat. The land areas
assigned to the enterprises for the extraction of solid mineral
resources make 21.2 thousand ha (of which for peat production 14.4
thousand ha) or 0.32% of the territory of Lithuania.
[FIGURE 2 OMITTED]
In the world the amount of various kinds of extracted mineral
resources per one inhabitant is approx 4-5 t, whereas, in the
economically strong countries--20 t per one inhabitant per year. In
Lithuania twenty years ago this amount came to 10-12 t, in
1996-2001--only up to 4 t of local mineral resources. From 2002 until
the recent years, due to the influence of the developing industry, road
and construction business, the amount of extracted mineral resources has
been continuously increasing (Fig. 2) and in the year 2008 has reached
5-6 t per one inhabitant. Unfortunately, the recent financial crisis
caused sharp changes in the mining industry. This industry was one of
those which resulted in the most significant fall in the whole state
economy. Stopped construction and sudden limitation of road building and
maintenance financing, the volume of extraction in 2009 has in the whole
country dropped by 44%. In addition to that, enterprisers producing the
highest quality local mineral products (from Lithuanian Aggregate
Producers Association--LAPA) had to limit their extraction even more--by
extra 9% up to the drop of 53%. The turnover dropped even more. It is to
be concluded that financial crisis makes a negative (9%) effect to the
use of high quality products. The recent LAPA questionnaire informs that
the accumulated January-September 2010 highest quality aggregate market
in comparison to the corresponding period of 2009 still continues to
drop. In order to survive, mining companies are sharply limiting
personal, stopping extraction, selling equipment. The decrease in
extraction volumes in 2009 brought the Lithuanian mining industry to the
year 2004 and the predicted continuous drop in 2010 is throwing the
excavation volumes and industry even further back. Preservation of
advanced technologies and survival of enterprises becomes a challenge.
Rational and continuous use of national resources faces destructive
disturbances.
The largest amounts of resources excavated and consumed in the road
building are those of gravel, sand and dolomite, for the production of
binding materials--limestone.
Lithuania is provided with most of the being used solid mineral
resources not for one century, though, without setting priorities
between all resources, certain difficulties may arise in future when
implementing Lithuanian Constitutional court explanation on the public
interest of rational use of resources and using the max of their
potential.
The fact that provision with local mineral resources is very
important for the welfare of economy in each country is proved by the
Communications of the European Commission the Raw Materials
Initiative--Meeting our Critical Needs for Growth and Jobs in Europe and
Improving Framework Conditions for Extracting Minerals for the EU.
4. Mineral resources used for road building purposes
The largest amount of mineral resources extracted in Lithuania and
used for road building purposes is that of gravel, sand and dolomite.
For a filter bed the most widely used is local sieved sand, washed and
sieved sand or sand-gravel mixtures of various fractions and
compositions (Dvareckas, Skrinskas 1998); for road bases or subbases the
mostly used are crushed dolomite, crushed gravel shingle and crushed
rock of wider fractions and better coarseness imported from Belarus,
Ukraine or Scandinavian countries, usually processed in Lithuania before
using it according to standards. For asphalt concrete (AC) pavement
layers, depending on the normative requirements, the local crushed
dolomite or crushed shingle of narrow fractions is used, as well as
imported mostly locally secondary or tertiary crushed and washed granite
(Cygas et al. 2005).
Aggregates used for railway building consists of few components:
laying elements of the top structure of railway track, railway bed and
drainage layer. Mineral materials, produced in Lithuania, are also used
for constructing, reconstructing or repairing railways. During railway
construction, over the main site of railway bed a drainage layer of
15-20 cm sand is laid, when building tracks in the railway station a
sand-gravel layer is applied. In both cases the Lithuanian mineral
materials are fully suitable. However, for the bases of tracks--railway
bed--the imported crushed granite of only E or F category of 31.5-63 mm
fraction is used, which is as a rule finally processed in Lithuania.
To have a comparatively wider understanding on material properties
short geologic information about gravel, sand and dolomite is presented
below.
Gravel and sand are among most widely spread mineral resources in
Lithuania. Gravel is a friable sedimentary rock. It consists of
particles and fragments of variable diameter. The prevailing particles
are those of sand (0.1-2 mm), pebbles (2-20 mm) and shingle (10-100 mm),
most often it also contains boulders and particles of clay. Lithuanian
gravel consists of crystalline rocks (20-40%) (mainly granite and
gneiss), carbonated rocks (limestone, dolomite) and sandstone (50-70%)
as well as grains of quartz or feldspar.
Sand is a sedimentary rock. It consists of 60-85% sand grains of
0.1-2 mm of various forms (angular and rounded fragments) consisting of
quartz, feldspar, carbonates and some other minerals (mostly heavy) or
admixture of rock fragments. Sand is usually of whitish colour, which
mainly depends on the amount of quartz and feldspar in it; other colours
are determined by the additives like glauconite, which gives green
colour, ferrous oxides and hydroxide layer, which give yellow, brown and
pinkish colours, organic carbon-rich materials add grey and blackish
colour. Sand is friable and porous (its porosity reaches 26-49%). Its
density is 1.6-1.8 g/[cm.sup.3]. In Lithuania sand is found from the
Devonian, Jurasic, Neogene and Quaternary periods, however all known
gravel and construction sand deposits are correlated only with
Quaternary deposits: glacial and aquaglacial (sand and gravel) as well
as aeolian (sand). The largest deposits of gravel are associated with
fluvioglacial deposits (sanders, fluvioglacial terraces and deltas)
(Blazauskas et al. 2007).
In 79% of the territory of the Republic of Lithuania sand and
gravel deposits are vast, but in 21% of the territory they are very
miserable, since up to a 15-20 m depth Quaternary consists of moraine,
clay, aleurite or very fine, clayey sand.
Dolomite beds in Lithuania are detected in many geological systems,
but only dolomite deposits occurring near the land surface in the
northern part of Lithuania in the Upper Devonian Pliaviniai, Tstras,
Stipinai, Kruoja or Zagare formations are considered to be of a
practical significance. According to dolomite bed continuity, occurrence
conditions, quantity and quality, dolomite of the Stipinai formation was
found to be the best for extraction and production of aggregates
(Gasiuniene 1998).
5. Research and analysis of laboratory testing data of local
aggregate applicability for road building
Since the chemical composition and hence the mechanical properties
of gravel has comparative variation from quarry to quarry and dolomite
occurs in layers, with each layer as well as production site manifest
differing characteristics, the investigation focused on few leading
dolomite and gravel excavation and production sites in Pakruojis and
Trakai regions.
Strength is one of the key requirements of the quality of chips.
The strength is characterised by the crushability index, the flakiness
index measured by pressing particles in a cylinder and resistance to
wear measured by a drum test. The parameters simulate the resistance of
rock to vehicle-caused loading and other mechanical factors when
constructing the road (road grading, compacting) (Maciulaitis et al.
2009; Skrinskas, Domatas 2006).
Majority of results given in Table 2 are based on laboratory
testing data using crushed material from the leading Lithuanian high
quality road building material production sites: Petrasiunai and
Klovainiai dolomite quarries and Trakai gravel pit.
After analysis of numerous laboratory tests (made by Road Research
Laboratory of the Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, SE
"Problematika" and JSC "Laboratorinitj bandyrruj
centras" laboratories) evaluating key material properties of
dolomite and gravel chips, it was found that gravel chips gave better
results in: Crushability Index SR8/12, the Polished Stone Value (PSV),
amount of particles of P form, adhesion to bitumen (%), with the amount
of "Wetfix", adhesion to bituminous emulsion, frost
resistance; dolomite chips presented better results in: Flakiness Index
Msk, resistance to fragmentation by the LA test method, resistance to
fragmentation by the impact test method (SZ), losses in the mass of
particles after 10 freezing and thawing cycles (F50, F100).
The presented test results show that gravel chips have slight
priority against dolomite chips, but these differences are not so
significant to recommend priority of one or another local material. It
should be mentioned that the inspected material properties depend not
only on average quarry or pit material, but also on the location, area
or depth in the quarry, from which the material was given to production
and further testing, as well as the production and crushing technology
used. Therefore, further and wider key material testing with random and
independent sampling is recommended.
The prices of delivered material together with material quality are
both crucial aspects in the analysis of feasibility of application of
local dolomite and gravel chips. The threshold value of the price
preference in Lithuania fluctuates each year. Fig. 3 presents the
average straight line showing where the prices of the delivered crushed
dolomite and crushed gravel in 2009 were the same.
[FIGURE 3 OMITTED]
The total price of chips, delivered to asphalt plant, depends on
both the production and transportation costs. Fig. 3 presents the
somewhat of fluctuating threshold border of the sum of both production
and transportation costs. Financial feasibility of dolomite delivery is
better in the north of the country, versus gravel chips, which are more
cost effective in the south of Lithuania. In practice the spread of
delivered crushed dolomite or gravel chips (crushed shingle) exceeded
the theoretic border line in both directions. The same tendencies are
observed when comparing the prices of both dolomite and gravel products
used for subbases.
Interesting results were obtained when analysing test results of
the local and imported materials and their mixtures used in road bases.
One of the characteristic indicators showing the predicted longer
service life of the layer of road base under Lithuanian conditions is
California Bearing Ratio determined by a percentage ratio between the
stamp pressure on the soaked road base mixture and the stamp pressure on
standard soil.
The longest service life expectancy is represented by the layers of
road base which are built from crushed materials. The worst results are
obtained when the road base mixture is produced from uncrushed sand with
pebbles and shingle from local quarries. As well it is to be mentioned,
that granite mixture fr. 0/56 mm low results were related to the
emphasized by the laboratory standard requirements exceeding amount of
flat and longitudinal particles.
Based on Fig. 4 it is interesting to conclude that in the layers of
road base the best service life is represented by the optimum grading
mixtures and not by the imported mixtures of crushed granite known for
its better strength properties. The best results are obtained when both
the strength properties of used materials and the continuity properties
of their grading curve are the best, water absorption is the least and
frost resistance is the best.
The key climatic bottleneck for Lithuanian roads is mild winter
conditions with an average of 70-80 freezing and thawing cycles per year
(from min 50 cycles/y - to max 90 cycles/y) on the top of the wearing
course of road pavement (Jukneviciute 2010). Measurements show that
almost one half of the freezing and thawing cycles reach subbase.
Interesting to note, that European standards do not obligatory require
the material testing after more than 10 laboratory made freezing and
thawing cycles. The authors of this article recommend that seeking for
the economy of road maintenance and reconstruction costs the Lithuanian
road maintenance authorities have to arrange the additionally required
experiments. In order to find the best road base mixtures suitable for
Lithuanian climatic conditions it is obligatory to arrange and finance
the complex long-term laboratory research and to test the main
properties of subbase layer after at least 350 to 700 freezing and
thawing cycles, representing at least 10 to 20 years of road subbase
service.
In road building a character of material service in the layers of
road bases and in pavement courses differs. Correspondingly, the
research methods were selected.
Experimental research into physical and mechanical parameters of
the wearing and base course containing dolomite and gravel chips
according to Marshall Test were made using both leading quality
Petrasiunai quarry dolomite and crushed gravel from Trakai pit. The
tested parameters were: P (permanence), Pl (plasticity), LA (residual
porosity), [[rho].sub.m] (average density of AC mixture) and [rho]
(average density of AC). The test was carried out by varying the amount
of bitumen in AC from 5.0% to 7.0% (at an interval of 0.5%). It was
identified that all of the above parameters largely depend on the
percentage of bitumen in AC. Thus, physical and mechanical properties of
AC according to Marshall Test are in conformity with the Statybos
Techninis Reglamentas STR 2.06.03:2001 Automobiliu keliai [National
Standard R35-01 on Asphalt Concrete and Gravel Pavements of Roads and
with the Construction Technical Regulation] (Cygas et al. 2005). The
research results are presented in Table 3.
AC mixtures with local materials fully correspond to the normative
requirements and exceed them. AC mixtures with crushed dolomite exceed
the normative requirements by 42% on average (min 10%, max 95%). AC
mixtures with crushed gravel shingle exceed the normative requirements
by 33% on average (min 8%, max 80%).
It was determined that physical and mechanical indices of AC,
containing crushed shingle and crushed dolomite, differ insignificantly,
but Petrasiunai crushed dolomite has slight priority over Trakai crushed
gravel. Based on the data obtained the use of local materials according
to the minimal exceeding of all normative requirements in road
structures could be increased without breaking the normative
requirements by 8 for crushed gravel and by 10% for crushed dolomite or
more compared to the use of imported materials.
From the point of view of safe driving on a wet pavement, for the
wearing course it is better to use gravel chips since their Polished
Stone Value (PSV) is higher than that of dolomite chips, and during wet
conditions pavement is safer and less slippery.
6. Economic and strategic milestones
Presented data on laboratory investigations of road building
materials, shows the depth of scientific researches in Lithuania, and a
complex entity of data obtained.
Best policy is based on the best science (Lubchenco 1995; 1998).
Science, however, is a dynamic, ongoing process that is continually
discovering new information. Thus the interaction between science and
policy must also be ongoing and dynamic. This article based on thorough
few years research data has an additional benefit - not just
information, but as well synthesis of complex information, and also a
frame of issues and communication to society and policy makers
(Lubchenco 1995; Shields 1998). This year is a particular time when
European Commission and Lithuanian Government sets priorities for the
effective use of raw materials.
The fact that the provision with local mineral resources is very
important for the welfare of society and state economy in each country
is proved and supported by the Communication of the European Commission
The Raw Materials Initiative--Meeting our Critical Needs for Growth and
Jobs in Europe and Improving Framework Conditions for Extracting
Minerals for the EU. Economic values of resources and optimum adjustment
of their properties to public welfare gives crucial information for the
creators of a strategy for the rational use of the underground
resources.
Having made parallels between the presented data of experimental
research, data on the specific features of national resources and the
goal of Lithuania and European Union to rationalize the extraction and
processing of resources seeking for public wealth and competitive
economy, it was determined that:
--the most optimal final product of local gravel and dolomite
resources is excavated and several times washed, sieved and crushed
stone which can replace the expensive imported granite material;
--quality of produced building materials depends on their
production technology, skill and management, the quality, the area, the
homogeneity and even the various layers location within the raw material
of resources and other factors. Depending on the above parameters, not
in all excavation sites it is feasible to produce the most optimal final
products for road building. Only the adequate quality material sites
with enough area for the production sites and available resources can be
used for production of local dolomite and gravel chips;
--condition and value of different kind of resources, of their
quality and level of exploration differ not only by economic, public,
national security, geopolitical, import-export balance, national
monetary cash flow or other criteria. They are subjects of additional
analysis when preparing a strategy for the use of Lithuanian mineral
resources which would ensure the optimum use of their economic potential
and enrich and support implementation of Communications of the European
Commission;
--accessibility of the explored in detail resources for rational
and undisturbed use is the state and public interest;
--estimates of economic and public value of the production of the
most optimal final product of local resources would be the first step to
support the rational decision making.
Calculations based on 2007 and 2008 consumption of the most optimal
final local products (several times washed, sieved and crushed stone and
washed gravel) in road building and construction accumulates both
economic (social) and financial savings of over 515-615 mln LTL/year of
state cash outflow. Estimations are based on the economic (excluding
VAT) border prices of the same volume of otherwise to be imported more
expensive granite raw material. Additional estimate of economic border
prices of imported sand in the mentioned period showed that due to the
local resources the additional savings amounted to about 135-162 mln LTL
per year. During 2007 and 2008 rational use of the finally processed
local gravel and dolomite resources, versus the imported material border
prices, has accumulated a total of 1.43 billion LTL (414 mln EUR) in a
two-year period. These are both savings of the state cash outflow and
the direct and indirect revenue to the budget of the Republic of
Lithuania. Rational use of local resources gives the average yearly
amount of over 700 mln LTL/year (200 mln EUR/year) and is equal to the
savings of about 200 LTL (58 EUR) per capita per year (2007/2008). These
figures could be increased--as was estimated earlier, up to 8-10% or
more of granite used in AC layers could be replaced by cheaper and still
enough strong locally properly produced chips. The value of lower
production level of raw underground resource sites to the state and
society is considerably lower, and they were not included into the
estimation presented, but they have their value as well. It should be
stated that the potential of final local aggregate products during the
crisis has fallen nearly fourfold: one half because of less production
and nearly half because of the lower border prices of imported raw
material. But taking into account budget restrictions the crisis
emphasized the value of local resources and possible economy and benefit
of feasible infrastructure investments.
According to the few average indicators for the gravel resources of
Lithuania, an area exceeding 100 ha could be feasible for starting
rational production of washed gravel and washed and crushed gravel
shingle. In the less-size gravel pits investments into crushing of upper
size of shingle are risky and unfeasible. Correspondingly, dividing of
resource lots is irrational and unviable from the point of view of state
and public interests.
For the rational extraction and production of crushed dolomite
similar or slightly less minimal resource area could be feasible, but
would much depend on the characteristics of upper soil layer and
logistics. During the last decade aggregate production sites in
Lithuania were upgraded considerably, productivity increased, but
comparatively low available resource depths requires the estimated
areas.
But recent decline has resulted in sharp increase and sell-out of
unused capacity, equipment and skill. Since the world economic crisis
forced the country and the banking sector to sharply decrease
investments and loans into public infrastructure and housing, it
resulted into force majeure situation in local aggregate production
industry.
Rational, balanced, undisturbed, environmentally friendly and
possible to forecast consumption and production of local resources is a
goal for the state, public, decision makers, producers and scientists.
7. Conclusions
The national resources of gravel sand and dolomite explored in
detail and in general (prognostic or supposed) amount to 4842.7 and
553.3 mln [m.sup.3], respectively. Based on the amount of their
extraction in 2008 they could be used for 400 and 235 years,
respectively. However, according to the studied qualitative parameters,
important to the road building, a current supply of local dolomite and
especially gravel for crushing closer to large cities can decrease after
10-30 years, depending on the strategy for the use of state underground
resources. Without sufficient state protection, part of the underground
resources in future can become inaccessible for consumption.
The deposits of dolomite, gravel and sand explored in detail and
used for road building and other purposes occur under 6.8 thousand ha or
0.096% of the territory of Lithuania, their value amounts to 3.2 billion
LTL and makes 1.6% of the state property value. According to the state
property value per the area of Lithuanian territory, the value of
explored in detail dolomite and gravel deposits is the most expensive in
the country (30.9% of property value/1% of the territory) compared to
the value of all resources (13.5% of property value/1% of the
territory), roads of national significance (11.5% of property value/1%
of the territory) and the value of forest land and the land of
agricultural designation (2.8% of property value/1% of the territory).
Local underground resources, if properly processed, could be
perfectly used in road building:
--the most optimum final product of local gravel and dolomite
resources is the crushed, washed and sieved stone and rock which
replaces the imported granite material;
--having tested the two main Lithuanian road building aggregate
materials it was found that the local gravel chips present better
results in: Crushability Index SR8/12, the Polished Stone Value (PSV),
amount of particles of P form, adhesion to bitumen, bitumen emulsion (%)
and frost resistance. Dolomite chips presents better results in:
Flakiness Index Msk, resistance to fragmentation by the LA test method,
resistance to fragmentation by the impact test method (SZ), losses in
the mass of particles after 10 freezing and thawing cycles (F50, F100);
--research showed that the longest service life is represented by
the layers of road base which are built from crushed material. The best
results are obtained when both the strength properties of used materials
and the continuity properties of their grading curve are the best, water
absorption is the least and frost resistance is the best;
--in order to find the best road base mixtures suitable for
Lithuanian mild winter conditions (min 50 max 90 freezing and thawing
cycles/y on the top of pavement and on average up to 35-40 cycles/y in
the subbase) it is obligatory to carry out the complex long-term
research where the main properties of road subbase layer would be tested
after at least 350-700 freezing and thawing cycles, representing 10-20
years of road subbase service;
--AC mixtures with crushed dolomite exceed the normative
requirements by 42% (min 10%, max 95%). AC mixtures with crushed gravel
shingle exceed the normative requirements by 33% on average (min 8%, max
80%). It was determined that physical and mechanical indices of AC,
containing crushed shingle and crushed dolomite, differ insignificantly,
but Petrasiunai dolomite has slight priority. Based on the data obtained
the use of local materials (according to the minimum exceeding level of
all normative requirements) in road pavement wearing and base courses
could be increased without breaking the normative requirements by 8% for
crushed gravel and by 10% for crushed dolomite compared to the use of
imported materials;
--from the point of view of safe driving on a wet pavement, it is
better to use gravel chips for the wearing course since their Polished
Stone Value (PSV) is higher than that of dolomite chips, and during wet
conditions pavement is safer and less slippery.
Rational use of the optimal final products of local dolomite,
gravel and sand resources gives the average yearly state budget and cash
flow savings of over 700 mln LTL/year (over 200 mln EUR/year) and is
equal to the savings of about 200 LTL (58 EUR) per capita per year
during the period of stable economic growth (2007/2008).
To achieve the most effective and the highest value of the
extracted materials used in Lithuania for road building purposes (from
the economic, public, state cash flow, strategic state competitiveness,
tax collection and private investments feasibility point of view) only
in those explored in detail gravel deposits which according to the
average occurrence thickness of the national resources (7.8 m) and
material quality, have the extraction site area of 100 ha or more. In
the less-size gravel pits investments into crushing of upper size of
shingle are risky and unfeasible. Correspondingly, dividing of resource
lots is irrational and unviable from the point of view of state and
public interests. For the rational extraction and production of crushed
dolomite similar or slightly less minimal area could be feasible, but
would much depend on the characteristics of upper soil layer and
logistics.
World economic crisis and the falling demands for aggregate
consumption in Lithuania made the additional negative (9%) effect on the
use of high quality products. Preservation of advanced technologies and
survival of enterprises becomes a challenge. Rational, balanced,
undisturbed, environmentally friendly and possible to forecast
consumption and production of local resources is a goal for the state,
public, decision makers, producers and scientists.
Optimum and most effective way of usage of underground mineral
resources of the country must be and is not only the base for state
economy and public welfare but also the tool for optimizing national
security, state budget and cash flow parameters. Mining developments
(but not development restrictions) and new findings are the direct
support to state geopolitics. Mining is a fundamental branch of the
countries heavy industry through small and average enterprises creating
thousands of working places within the branch itself and through its
quality products improving the operating quality of other sectors of
economy.
doi: 10.3846/bjrbe.2010.30
Received 11 December 2009; accepted 17 September 2010
References
Blazauskas, N.; Jurgaitis, A.; Sinkunas, P. 2007. Patterns of Late
Pleistocene Proglacial Fluvial Sedimentation in the SE "Lithuanian
Plain", Sedimentary Geology 193 (1-4): 193-201.
doi:10.1016/j.sedgeo.2005.06.015
Cygas, D.; Laurinavicius, A.; Skrinskas, S. 2005. Feasibility of
Application of Local Aggregates in Asphalt Concrete Pavements in
Lithuania, in Proc of the 6th International Conference
"Environmental Engineering": selected papers, vol. 2. Ed. by
Cygas, D.; Froehner, K. D. May 26-27, 2005, Vilnius, Lithuania. Vilnius:
Technika, 686-690.
Dvareckas, D.; Skrinskas, S. 1998. Central Lithuanian
Geomorphologic Conditions Impact on Gravel Roads, in The Geographical
Yearbook XXXI: 250-262.
Gasiuniene, V. E.; Gudonyte, J.; Januska, V. 2008. Lietuvos
naudinguju iskasenu naudojimo analize ir prognozes darnaus vystymosi
aspektu [Analysis and Forecasts for the Use of Mineral Resources of
Lithuania in the Aspect of Sustainable Development]. Lietuvos geologijos
tarnyba. 60 p.
Gasiuniene, V. E. 1998. Lietuvos kietosios naudingosios iskasenos
[Lithuanian Solid Mineral Resources]. Lietuvos geologijos tarnyba. 61 p.
Jonynas, J.; Juozapavicius, G.; Valiunas, J. 2004. Kietuju
naudinguju iskasenu gavybos poveikis aplinkai [Environmental Impact of
the Extraction of Solid Mineral Resources], in Lietuvos Zemes gelmiu
raida ir istekliai [Development and Resources of Lithuanian Earth
Entrails] (resp. editor V. Baltrunas). Vilnius: Petro ofsetas, 458-465.
Jukneviciute, L. 2010. Methodology for the Evaluation of the Effect
of the Climate of Lithuania on Road Construction and Climatic Regioning,
The Baltic Journal of Road and Bridge Engineering 5(1): 62-68.
doi:10.3846/bjrbe.2010.09
Lubchenco, J. 1998. Entering the Century of the Environment: a New
Social Contract for Science, Science 279(5350): 491497.
doi:10.1126/science.279.5350.491
Lubchenco, J. 1995. The Role of Science in Formulating a
Biodiversity Strategy, Science and Biodiversity Policy Bioscience Suppl:
S7-S9.
Maciulaitis, R.; Vaiciene, M.; 2urauskiene, R. 2009. The Effect of
Concrete Composition and Aggregates Properties on Performance of
Concrete, Journal of Civil Engineering and Management 15(3): 317-324.
doi:10.3846/1392-3730.2009.15.317-324
Shields, D. J. 1998. Nonrenewable Resources in Economic, Social,
and Environmental Sustainability, Natural Resources Research 7(4):
251-261. doi:10.1007/BF02764350
Skrinskas, S.; Domatas, A. 2006. Analysis of Lithuanian Gravel
Roads Paving Programme Implementation in 1998-2005, The Baltic Journal
of Road and Bridge Engineering 1(4): 157-166.
Staponkus, V. 2010. Iniinerine geologija [Engineering Geology].
Vilnius: Kulturos l-kla. 248 p.
Skirmantas Skrinskas (1), Vyda Elena Gasiuniene (2), Alfredas
Laurinavicius (3), Igoris Podagelis (4)
(1,3,4) Dept of Roads, Vilnius Gediminas Technical University,
Sauletekio al. 11, 10223 Vilnius, Lithuania E-mails: (1,4) kk@vgtu.lt;
(2) vydageo@gmail.com; (3)alfla@vgtu.lt
Table 1. Mineral resources of the Republic of Lithuania according
Lithuanian Geological Survey in 2008
Extraction
No Mineral resources Unit of mineral
resources
in 2008
1 Rock salt mln t --
2 Anhydrite mln t --
3 Dolomite mln [m.sup.3] 2.359
4 Peat mln t 0.448
5 Iron ore Fe > 20%, mln t --
of which Fe > 45%
6 Fresh-water limestone mln [m.sup.3] --
7 Amber thous t --
8 Gypsum mln t --
9 Glauconite sandy loam mln [m.sup.3] --
10 Limestone mln t 1.632
11 Chalky marl mln t --
12 Clay mln [m.sup.3] 0.301
13 Oil mln t 0.12771
14 Gaize mln t --
15 Sapropel mln [m.sup.3] --
16 Gravel and sand mln [m.sup.3] 12.047
Amount of Amount of
No Mineral resources resources resources
explored in explored in
detail general
1 Rock salt -- 545.0
2 Anhydrite 101.5 --
3 Dolomite 106.71 140.59
4 Peat 206.96 370.5
5 Iron ore Fe > 20%, -- 219.6 142.1
of which Fe > 45%
6 Fresh-water limestone 0.6 1.0
7 Amber -- 0.112
8 Gypsum 23.3 2.2
9 Glauconite sandy loam -- 7.4
10 Limestone 369.91 762.8
11 Chalky marl 13.09 4.0
12 Clay 141.20 102.70
13 Oil 2.699 1.205
14 Gaize 33.7 --
15 Sapropel 4.29 15.90
16 Gravel and sand 745.36 982.61
Amount of Amount of
No Mineral resources detected supposed
prognostic prognostic
resources resources
1 Rock salt -- 2450.0
2 Anhydrite -- --
3 Dolomite 306.0 --
4 Peat 1.867 --
5 Iron ore Fe > 20%, 71.0 9.2 201.4 120.6
of which Fe > 45%
6 Fresh-water limestone 0.219 --
7 Amber 0.227 --
8 Gypsum 9.3 --
9 Glauconite sandy loam 21.681 --
10 Limestone 1780.0 50.0
11 Chalky marl 41.928 --
12 Clay 113.212 --
13 Oil 0.120 8.157
14 Gaize -- --
15 Sapropel 63.441 94.277
16 Gravel and sand 3083.425 31.279
Table 2. Comparison of the properties of crushed gravel and crushed
dolomite
Investigation data
Dolomite chips
Properties
Mean
value Min Max Ranking
Crush-ability Index
SR8/12 17.75 16.6 19.6 2
Flakiness Index Msk 8.45 5.9 16.7 1
Resistance to
fragmentation by the
LA test method 25 30 19 1
Resistance to
fragmentation by the
impact test method (SZ) 22.5 27 20 1
The Polished Stone
Value (PSV) 44 41 47 2
Amount of particles of
P form, % 9.8 1.9 19.4 2
Adhesion to bitumen (%),
with the amount of
"Wetfix" of 0.9% 85 85 88 2
Adhesion to bituminous
emulsion,% 67.5 65 70 2
Frost resistance type F50 F100 2
Losses in the mass of
particles after 10
freezing and thawing
cycles (F50, F100) 2.86 1.17 5.05 1
A sum of first priority
positions 4
Rank 2
Investigation data
Gravel chips
Properties
Mean
value Min Max Ranking
Crush-ability Index
SR8/12 19.3 17 22.6 1
Flakiness Index Msk 11.58 7.5 13.61 2
Resistance to
fragmentation by the
LA test method 30 35 22.5 2
Resistance to
fragmentation by the
impact test method (SZ) 23.5 25 22 2
The Polished Stone
Value (PSV) 47.5 38 52 1
Amount of particles of
P form, % 6.4 1.1 14.5 1
Adhesion to bitumen (%),
with the amount of
"Wetfix" of 0.9% 87.5 80 95 1
Adhesion to bituminous
emulsion,% 87.5 80 95 1
Frost resistance type F100 F100 1
Losses in the mass of
particles after 10
freezing and thawing
cycles (F50, F100) 6.17 4.12 9.83 2
A sum of first priority
positions 6
Rank 1
Table 3. Summary of the results of experimental research in AC
mixtures
Experimental research Normative AC with AC with
requirements crushed crushed
shingle dolomite
Base course of AC
According to Marshall
Permanence P, kN [greater than or 9.1 9.4
equal to] 8.0
Plasticity Pl, mm 2-4 2.5 2.4
Ratio of permanence
and plasticity P/Pl, kN/mm [greater than or 3.6 3.9
equal to] 2.0
Residual porosity LA, % 3.0-7.0 5.9 5.4
Wearing course of AC
According to Marshall
Permanence P, kN [greater than or 8.6 8.8
equal to] 8.0
Plasticity Pl, mm 2.5-4.5 3.3 3.6
Ratio of permanence
and plasticity P/Pl, kN/mm [greater than or 2.6 2.9
equal to] 2.0
Residual porosity LA, % 1.0-4.0 3.2 3.2
Fig. 4. Comparison of different producers and different road base
mixtures according to CBR value after soaking
difference (in %) CBR testresults
between the best after soak, given
result (producer at 2.5 mm
JSC "Zvyro karjerai") earmark, %
and the other mixes
Mixture fr. 0/32 mm
of sand and gravel
+ 55% granite
(production of
Trakai pit) 362.7
Dolomite fr. 0/56 mm
(Petrasiunai
quarry) 303.4 16.3
Dolomite fr. 0/56 mm
(Klovainiai quarry) 291.5 19.6
Mixture fr. 0/56 mm
of sand and gravel
+ 39% crushed
dolomite 242.8 33.1
Granite fr. 0/56 mm 200.3 44.8
Sand and uncrushed
gravel mixture
fr. 0/32 mm 152.5 58
Sand and uncrushed
gravel mixture
fr. 0/45 mm 116.5 67.9
Note: Table made from bar graph.
