Broken images of a defeat: gadda, comisso, malaparte, and the rout of caporetto.

Rossi, Umberto

1. WWI and the Modernist Debate

The roster of major inventive talents who were not involved with the war is long and impressive. It includes Yeats, Woolf, Pound, Eliot, Lawrence, and Joyce--that is, the masters of the modern movement. It was left to lesser talents--always more traditional and technically prudent--to recall in literary form a war they had actually experienced.

(Fussell 314-15)

About thirty years ago, the concluding chapter of Paul Fussell's The Great War and Modern Memory, one of the seminal texts about war literature, separated the memoirists previously discussed by the American critic (Blunden, Graves, Sassoon, and Jones) from the major figures of the Anglo-American modernism. Since then, Fussell's claim has been repeatedly challenged: traces of the Great War have been spotted in the second chapter of Joyce's Ulysses by more than one critic (Rossi, "Joyce and the Rebus of War"); different critical assessments of David Jones's uncompromisingly modernist treatment of the Great War in his 1937 poem-novel In Parenthesis (slated by Fussell) have been proposed (Rossi, "Il funebre a parte della Guerra"); above all, an interpretation of three of the major modernist writers (T.S. Eliot, Ezra Pound, and Virginia Woolf) as replying with their literary innovations to the war and the catastrophe it represented for liberalism has been authoritatively put forward by Vincent Sherry in his 2003 monograph The Great War and the Language of Modernism. (1)

While this realignment of Great War literature with modernism was taking place, another critical transition was coming about, that is, the adoption of the very category of modernism by Italian Studies scholars in Italy and abroad, as represented by such critical works as Somigli and Moroni's Italian Modernism (2004), Somigli's chapters in Eysteinsson and Liska's Modernism (2007) and The Cambridge Companion to European Modernism (2011), and Tortora and Luperini's Sul modernismo italiano (2012). This transition is more than the importation of a critical term coming from a different literary tradition (Donnarumma 14): by putting the first half of the twentieth century under the aegis of Modernism, critics are asked to "riflettere sui limiti e sugli sviluppi cronologici, sul gioco inevitabile delle inclusioni e delle esclusioni, sulle 1 distinzioni interne, sul suo stesso significato" (15), that is, to rethink that period of the Italian literature and its wider European and global context.

We might see these two processes as two sides of a triangle, one being the renewed relation between modernism and WWI literature in an Anglophone context, the other the relation between Italian literature and modernism. Geometry suggests us that the third side necessarily connects the Great War and Italian literature, though this connection might seem nothing new, at least since Mario Isnenghi's 1967 pioneer monograph I vinti di Caporetto, followed by his 1970 magnum opus Il mito della grande guerra, which paved the way for a discontinuous series of critical contributions only partially mapped in my monograph Il secolo di fuoco. (2) Yet one has to consider the whole virtual triangle to realize that the rethinking of Great War literature vis-a-vis modernism and Italian literature vis-a-vis modernism asks for a reconsideration of Italian Great War literature in the context of Italian modernism. Hopefully this critical direction should not only amount to a renewed understanding of canonical Italian literary texts dealing with the grande Guerra--even though such a task is inescapable--but also trigger a redefinition of the corpus and an analysis of poems, memoirs and novels (plus other texts that are more difficult to classify) that have not been sufficiently discussed in the context of war literature. Moreover, this third realignment of Italian Great War literature with the ongoing debate on modernism and the international discussion on war literature may give our classics of war or combat fiction and memorialistica a greater visibility in the global space. (3) In fact one has to regret that in the prestigious Cambridge Companion to the Literature of the First World War there is no mention of Italian narratives and poetry, though it has striven to adopt a transnational perspective by including chapters on French and German Great War literature.

This essay will deal with four texts that have tried to depict the experiences of their authors during one of the most complex and important events of the Great War on the Italian front, that is, the battle or rout of Caporetto: a historical event, moreover, surrounded by a myth, or black legend (Isnenghi and Rochat 398-406). This focus will compel us to put aside some of the canonical narratives (such as Emilio Lussu's 1938 memoir Un anno sull'altipiano), and some that have not been discussed so often (such as the relatively neglected 1930 novel Vent'anni by Corrado Alvaro), though their relationship with the main themes of modernism is quite strong. As one focuses on the notorious military disaster of Caporetto, other works come to the foreground, such as Curzio Malaparte's Viva Caporetto! (1921), Giovanni Comisso's Giorni di guerra (1930) and the first part of Carlo Emilio Gadda's Castello di Udine (1934), in addition to his Giornale di guerra e di prigionia (1955-1991). (4) Maybe only Malaparte's anomalous pamphlet might qualify as modernist if we adopted a strict definition of the term; yet the effort to turn the name of a circumscribed literary current into a general category that can accommodate a whole period of Western literature has led to more open-ended formulations (Somigli and Moroni 12; Levenson 3), allowing us to deal with an apparently traditional memoir like Comisso's or unrevised and posthumously published narratives like Gadda's, which were not meant to be modernist works in the same way his Pasticciaccio is (Somigli 91). Moreover, reconnecting Italian modernist texts of the Great War with the specific critical issues of war literature (Rossi, Secolo 1645) may open new interpretive inroads in these works.

I attribute a strategic importance to Caporetto (and its literary depictions) for reasons I have only begun to discuss in an essay on Hemingway's treatment of the rout, which occurred on 24-26 October 1917, and the ensuing chaotic retreat (Rossi, "Notizie"). (5) There I argued that if at the beginning of the Great War many saw the army as an organic community (for reasons that may well be different in each belligerent country), nonetheless the rout shattered that community on the Italian side, thus also disintegrating the collective expectations that amounted to a shared story or history. The community reverted to a gray, anonymous mass, where each individual struggled for safety and survival (not only by retreating, but also by surrendering to the enemy, in that being a POW was seen by many Italian soldiers as much less dangerous than fighting); there was no more a community with a common purpose and a shared history (at least this is how many perceived the rout [Isnenghi and Rochat 3918]). Such a fragmentation of the armed community is paralleled by a fragmentation of perception, as the dimensions of the battle, the innovative tactics used by the Germans and the Austrian-Hungarians, the features of the mountain territory, the use of gas, and the destruction of communication lines prevented most Italian combatants, regardless of their rank and position, from having an overall picture of what was going on. The same happened to the Italian high command in the first hours--possibly days--of the battle (Isnenghi and Rochat 384-6). This situation is mirrored by the fragmentariness of Hemingway's depiction of the battle in A Farewell to Arms, and such a destructuration of the diegesis is a good example of one of the overall features of modernist literature, as Levenson comments on "the recurring act of fragmenting unities (unities of character or plot or pictorial space or lyric form)" (3). A fragmented perception of an event which is too great and complex for the cognitive abilities of an individual asks for a fragmented narrative.

Not all the narrative approaches to the Battle admit that an overall picture is very difficult to achieve (as it required a long historiographical research, for which see Schindler Ch. 12; Isnenghi and Rochat 373-406). If one reads George Macaulay Trevelyan's 1919 memoir Scenes from Italy's War, one is presented with a linear and quite traditional depiction of the rout of Caporetto, which--because of Trevelyan's sympathetic attitude towards Italy and its people--strives to explain the state of mind of those Italian soldiers who retreated or surrendered almost without fighting in October 1917; he paints his fresco of the rout with the sweeping brushstrokes of nineteenth-century historiography, but--interestingly--he also focuses on "Giuseppe" (169-75), an imaginary soldier that English readers should take for "a type of the povero fante" (169) so that they may know what psychological mechanism brought the infantry regiments in the Isonzo valley to abandon their positions in a matter of hours. The attitude of Trevelyan, who--one should add--was not a trench fighter but commanded an ambulance unit in the rear, is quite different from what we find in the pages of Gadda's notebooks.

2. Gadda: From the Diary to Epiphanic Prose

Among these, the one that tackles the battle of Caporetto is a part of his Giornale di guerra e di prigionia, the memoir "La battaglia dell'Isonzo," whose original purpose was not at all literary: "I particolari dell'Isonzo e della mia cattura, raccolti pro-memoria, in caso di accuse (Narrazione per uso personale, scrupolosamente veridica)" (265). Gadda was well aware that, after the war, he might have to justify his behavior and the surrender of the machine gun unit he commanded. In a footnote he declares: "Non ci si meravigli di questo frammischiamento di fatterelli e tragedie: la realta fu tale e io la ricordo fotografando" (292)--a photograph of reality sounds like what one might expect from a nineteenth-century verista, not a modernist. Yet, when it comes to the crucial phases of the battle, and to those that brought about the abandonment of the trenches and the hasty retreat, which turned into a chaotic rout and disintegrated the whole Second Army, Gadda finds himself in a condition of uncertainty, ignorance and powerlessness:

[...] la nebbia impediva la vista dello Slatenik, non che delle antiche posizioni avversarie [...]

Avrei avuto ragione di credere che le linee fossero ancora occupate dai nostri [...]

Finalmente, parendoci di aver scorto qualcosa muoversi nella valle [...] diedi ordine alle mitragliatrici di sparar meno [...] per rivelare la loro presenza e mostrare al nemico che la linea era guarnita, illudendolo sull'entita della nostra forza

Credevo [...] che gli austriaci non avessero avanzato molto: il mio animo alternava il dubbio con la speranza.

[la baracca] della vetta Krasij sia quella di Kosek presumo sia stata in gran parte distrutta dai grossi calibri [...].

seppi (voce falsa) che un battaglione alpino era stato mandato sul Krasij [...]. Cio mi rassicuro: una tal voce era falsa.

sentii una grande esplosione; la attribuii allo scoppio di qualche deposito di munizioni [...] mentre di ben altro si trattava.

Io non potevo presagire [...] Ero dubbioso e speranzoso.

(287-92; italics mine)

This split between experience and understanding is also a typical feature of modernism, and has been connected with the traumatic character of modernist experiences (Baer 316); one more reason to go beyond Gadda's statements about a photographic realism and to acknowledge the intimately modernist nature of his depiction of the theater of war.

Moreover, it must be underscored that, although the purpose of this memoir was not strictly literary, Gadda's writing is remarkably effective and foreshadows his mature works (Dombroski, "Meaning" 376). (6) One may for instance read this passage, in which the young lieutenant describes the chaotic retreat in the Isonzo valley:

[the soldiers of Gadda's squad] erano stanchissimi, e l'esempio degli altri li scoraggiava. Poiche assistevano alla ritirata disordinata di truppa senza ufficiali, e di ufficiali senza truppa, della brigata Genova, d'artiglieria, di compagnie mitragliatrici. Tratto tratto gruppi di muli stavano caricandosi affrettatamente; qualche mulo isolato vagolava. Ovunque gruppi di soldati, ecc.--incontrammo e cio fini di spezzarmi il cuore, una batteria di obici da 210 che evidentemente era in via di traino, i pezzi erano abbandonati sulla strada, ricca preda al nemico: non ricordo se avessero gli otturatori o no--Una quantita di granate da 210 erano state appena scaricate sui bordi della strada. Via via incontrammo altro materiale: roba delle ricche cucine e mense ufficiali, ceste di viveri, ecc.--

(294)

In such passages what stands out, however, is the fragmentariness of Gadda's rendering of the battle, which chimes in with the fragmented image of Dublin in Ulysses, or London in The Waste Land; the depiction of the broken army, reduced to a disorganized throng, recalls the masses that are protagonist of modernist fiction, especially the metropolitan crowds. In the passage quoted above, the disintegration of the army is also metonymically manifested by the abandoned weapons (the howitzers) and equipment.

The collapse of the army, moreover, completely shatters Gadda's heroic, romantic expectations. When he styled himself "Duca di Sant'Aquila" (33) at the beginning of his "Giornale di campagna," the young officer was surely ironic; (7) yet we must not forget that he joined the war as a staunch interventista, and yearned for heroic deeds, even self-sacrifice (39). At the end of his "Giornale di prigionia," though, we find the author disheartened and depressed after more than a year wasted in a German POW camp after his capture at Caporetto:

La mia vita e inutile, e quella d'un automa sopravvissuto a se stesso, che fa per inerzia alcune cose materiali, senza amore ne fede.

Lavorero mediocremente e faro alcune altre bestialita. Saro ancora cattivo per debolezza, ancora egoista per stanchezza, e bruto per abulia, e finiro la mia torbida vita nell'antica e odiosa palude dell'indolenza che ha avvelenato il mio crescere mutando le possibilita dell'azione in vani, sterili sogni.

(435)

The young patriot who ardently wished to fight and stand out finds out that he is an anti-hero, an inetto, a kindred spirit of Svevo's Zeno. (8) But there are passages scattered throughout these diaries that bespeak Gadda's uncertainty about the role he is playing in the Alpini corps, especially his rants about the disorder of his shelter (138), of the Army's bureaucracy (142), of the whole Italian military machine (143), accompanied by his frequent remarks, at times almost hysterical, about the lack of courage and motivation of the soldiers (134-35, 143). The war is not as heroic and successful as it promised to be in the propaganda of the interventisti, and this is manifest well before the tremendously humiliating moment in which Gadda's squad, whose retreat has been unexpectedly cut off by the Germans, must sabotage its machine guns and surrender (302-05); indeed Gadda, as Dombroski comments, "feels himself betrayed in his search for identity" ("The Meaning" 377). His tragically disappointing war experience surely calls in doubt the relationship between the artist and tradition (Somigli and Moroni 12), because the ideals of patriotic heroism were a fundamental component of the nineteenth-century artistic and cultural tradition that he (and many other young combatants, not only in Italy) had inherited in their formative years. (9) Gadda's failure as an infantry officer is made even more bitter by the death of his brother Enrico, a former Alpini officer who was awarded a bronze medal in 1916 and a silver medal because, after becoming a fighter pilot, he crashed with his airplane in April 1919. Enrico, whom Carlo Emilio saw as the best and dearest part of himself (Giornale 418), was the real hero, and his death during the war steals forever that role from his brother "Gaddus."

Being or believing to be an anti-hero is the quintessential condition of the modernist character. The fragmentariness of perception is also a relevant issue for modernists, but the fragmentariness of form, as has been highlighted by Levenson, is also part of the picture when we deal with Gadda's treatment of the war. Let us not forget that before his Giornale was published in 1955, the Italian public could read the five prose fragments published in Il castello di Udine in 1934. The derivation of these pieces from the Giornale has been already analyzed by Rodondi; they re-elaborate the earlier, but then unpublished materials, with a denser and more complex prose, but also in a more fragmentary fashion (even though Gadda wrote in an endnote that the pieces "ebbero vincoli di rigorosa unita infino dalla gestazione" "Appendice" 830). All in all the five prose pieces read like genuine epiphanies, moments of dazzling awareness and illumination, searing manifestations of unforgettable and unsettling memories, such as, for example, the exhausting march on the Adamello glaciers (Castello 44-46) in which Gadda collapsed "come un vecchio mulo sfinito" (44). These are also traumatic moments, hence to be read in the light of a fundamental aspect of the modern(ist) experience (Baer).

These pieces are as epiphanic as the stories in Joyce's Dubliners, whom Gadda acknowledged having read in a letter to Contini (Lucchini 8); if they are connected by ties of rigorous unity, as Gadda wrote in his note, they are as subtle and covert as those interconnecting the stories of Joyce's more famous collection. Here, however, we do not have the vitreous clarity of vision of Dubliners. Rather, we are presented with a spasmodic torsion of the narrative structure, in which different places and situations metamorphose into one another, in an original mix of narration and a sort of feverish argumentation. These pieces present us, in a condensed, more refined (but equally emotional) manner, with the same issues that haunt the Giornale: (10) the author's feeling of not being up to the situation, the reassertion of the reasons of his interventismo, his alienation from the Italian society as represented by the army, the humiliating conditions in the POW lager, above all the sense of loss and bereavement. It is not coincidental that the last piece of the Castello, "Imagine di Calvi," ends with the description of the death of lieutenant Attilio Calvi on the Adamello, a sort of avatar of Gadda's brother Enrico (whose death closes the Giornale), another hero with whom the author cannot stand comparison.

Another typically modernist theme that plays an important role in Gadda's writings about the war is, of course, the relationship of the artist and the institutions in general, not only the cultural ones, as suggested by Somigli and Moroni (12). Here it is not only a matter of how a writer interacts with critics, publishers, the academia, the cultural establishment (surely an important issue, inasmuch as modernism thematized it in several epochal Kunstlerroman); it is also a matter of how the modernist artist relates to society in general, his/her alienation, his/her refusal to integrate or conform, his/her discontent. This side of Gadda's work has already been discussed by Isnenghi in his Mito della grande guerra (for which see also De Angelis 60-61); one has, however, to highlight, in Gadda's Giornale and Castello, the importance of the opposition between the front soldiers and the majority of Italians who stayed at home during the war. This issue connects these narratives to the wider, transnational context of Great War literature, as the opposition between the combatants' and the civilians' worlds (the front line vs. the rear/the cities) is found in many WWI narratives (Rossi, Secolo 29-31); a remarkable episode belonging to this uninterrupted discursive thread is the meeting with the two prostitutes who do not seem to be particularly sorry for the disaster that has overwhelmed the Italian Army:

Due cocottes piene di sifilide e di sguaiato servilismo pregarono De Candido [uno degli ufficiali prigionieri] di raccomandarle a ufficiali tedeschi. Cola e lui chiesero quale fosse la loro sorte e si fermarono a chiacchierare [...]. Ricordo le sfacciate parole della piu piccola delle due svergognate: "Per noi italiani o tedeschi fanno lo stesso", dette con allegria.

(Giornale 307-08)

One might easily read this passage as witnessing Gadda's misogyny, but it is also a moment in which Gadda metonymically represents the civilian world--which did not really believe in the war and was only interested in making money out of it--through the two corrupt and repugnant cocottes; moreover, here we have another example of that "refusal of the norms of beauty" which characterizes modernism in general (Levenson 3), and which entails the description of scandalous situations often related to sexuality. However, another reading is possible. If one thinks of the use of more or less covert symbols in modernist fiction and poetry (often signs of a private nature, such as those in Joyce's "Schema Linati"), because "the use of mythic paradigms" (Levenson 3) is only one of those signifying architectures that--in addition to their sometimes bewildering innovative modes of representation--give modernist texts an inner consistency notwithstanding their "rejection of realism" (Somigli and Moroni 12); hence the prostitutes can be easily read as an embodiment of Italy (traditionally represented as a woman), betrayed and forsaken by her soldiers, her territory prostituted to the oncoming Austrians.

Of course, the objection might be raised that we should not see so much construction and literary texture in words hastily written on an exercise book, in a memoir that Gadda had written for practical reasons; the prostitutes are there because Gadda did meet them on 25 October 1917 in Caporetto. But we know that memory is selective, and that by focusing on the two prostitutes--who were not really relevant for the "rational" purpose of the memoir--Gadda was plausibly driven by a complex psychological dynamics (explored in detail by Carta). (11) Hence this small episode should be read as a multi-layered textual construct with a wide potential for signification.

Moreover, it should be clear that modernist literature of the Great War is not simply a literary practice (or a set of literary practices) that tackles the experience of the combatants in the trenches and/or the civilians who were not in the trenches, but were in any case involved in the conflict; modernism should always be understood as an artistic reaction to modernity, to the vast and deep changes affecting the Western society and then the rest of the world since the end of the nineteenth century, brought about by electricity, cars, airplanes, telephone, cinema, and so forth. The rout of Caporetto is one of the chapters of this enormous novel; it was a battle in which the innovative use of some technologies (e.g., poison gases, automatic weapons, telecommunications) enabled the German and the Austrian-Hungarian armies to completely unhinge the Italian lines and capture hundreds of thousands of prisoners. Gadda's perception of the rout, his emotional (often overemotional) reactions, his bewilderment, confusion and despair are the side effects of a most modern feat of logistics, tactics, strategy and technology. Gadda's experience in those days of October was something that asked for a different treatment from a literary point of view. A first answer is the Giornale, then there are the highly modernist, epiphanic pieces of the Castello. In other words, a radically modern experience on a technologized battlefield leads to a modernist narrative.

3. Comisso: Technological and Emotional Distancing

This view is quite clear when one considers the pages where Giorni di guerra, Giovanni Comisso's more classical and less expressionistic memoir, deals with the hours in which the collapse of the Second Army took place (Giorni 124-45). We do not find Gadda's overcharged emotivity and magmatic language, yet Comisso's elegant and untroubled prose presents us with a fragmentary view of the battlefield:

La battaglia era incominciata alle due, come era stato avvertito dal Comando supremo. Il generale vecchio e sordo non riesciva a sentire l'osservatorio di Maritza che ne dava la notizia e dovetti ritrasmettergliela. [...] Dal Corpo d'Armata, Kirghis, era lo pseudonimo del capo di stato maggiore [...], volle sapere subito la nostra situazione. Il bombardamento cesso dopo poche ore e tutti i comandi avanzati con un senso di sollievo si affrettarono ad avvertirci. [...]

Dal Rombon telefonarono che lassu nevicava e vi era stato soltanto un grande lancio di razzi bianchi. Anche questa notizia riesci tranquillamente, ma dopo mezz'ora di sosta il bombardamento riprese. [...] quando biancheggio sui monti le artiglierie iniziarono un tiro che aveva un fragore diverso. Subito ci venne segnalato che tiravano granate a gas asfissiante. Il comando si mise in allarme. Telefono a destra e a sinistra per averne la conferma. Nessuno poteva garantirlo. [...] "E ritornato dalla linea l'ufficiale che abbiamo mandato e riferisce che i soldati sono tutti al loro posto, col fucile tra le mani e la maschera al volto" [...] comunico nuovamente Mirtillo [another codename].

(Giorni 125-27)

Like Comisso himself, readers do not directly access the front-lines; the writer belonged to a communications unit of the Regio Esercito, which laid telephone cables to connect the trenches and other positions to the commands and managed networks and switchboards. With the benefit of hindsight, we may say that the role played by Comisso exposed him to what was cutting-edge information and communication technology in 1917. Thus the ongoing battle is perceived through an electric medium, the telephone, which on the one hand achieves an immaterial simultaneity (news from distant points of the front-line arrive immediately to the command, where the writer operates the switchboard with his comrades [125]), while it turns the battlefield in an immaterial, acousmatic space of disembodied voices (Chion) that only offer fragments of the whole event. These fragments may be beguiling, as the reassuring news of the soldiers still holding their line after the bombing with gas shells hides a tragic truth: "Quei soldati erano fermi, impietriti dalla morte che la piccola e miserabile maschera non aveva servito a impedire" (127).

Of course the concluding remark was written with the benefit of hindsight and belongs to the moment of telling, not to the moment told; in October 1917 Comisso was not aware that poison gas had exterminated the soldiers in the front-line and that the Italian front was quickly crumbling. When news of the collapse arrives, it comes as a surprise and is not believed: "[...] un'altra stazione telefono che al baracchino del dottore, ai piedi del Rombon, [the enemy infantrymen] gia avevano oltrepassata la linea marciando verso Plezzo. Il comando non si convinse" (127). The flux of information carried by the cables is much faster than the ability of the commanding officers to interpret them or devise a reaction. Comisso registers the barrage of news (most of it bad) until the name of a familiar place transforms the so far immaterial battle into a known space: "La batteria di Naradelie telefono [...]. 'Abbiamo tolto gli otturatori e ci ritiriamo.' [...] Abbandonai il telefono con un brivido che mi prese alla testa. A Naradelie si andava alla sera per fare una passeggiata" (129). Removing the breech bolt of cannons is the last resort of gunners who must hastily abandon their heavy guns, and this means that the situation is desperate. Moreover, Naradelie is within walking distance, hence Comisso--who so far has been a spectator of the battle, or better its listener--suddenly realizes that the enemy is now so close that he can be finally placed in a space the writer has measured with his own body, as he has walked there. No wonder that this realization is shocking.

What follows is a communication breakdown: "La linea era interrotta. [...] il filo si era spezzato. Le comunicazioni ottiche erano impedite dalla nebbia. [...] Il telefono della teleferica non rispondeva. [...] ogni idea di comunicazione fu abbandonata" (130). When a German or Austrian soldier calls from Maritza (134), it is clear that the battle is lost. "Nessuna linea rispondeva piu" (135); the shutdown of the telephone network sanctions the disintegration of the community in arms, and we follow Comisso's escape from the Isonzo valley. Interestingly, one of the soldiers--seeing "la cima del Rombon con le gallerie illuminate"--remarks: "Quelli sono ancora lassu e non sanno che noi ci siamo ritirati. Li prenderanno tutti prigionieri" (137). The soldiers still manning the top of Mount Rombon are in the same situation of Gadda on the nearby Mount Krasij: the lie of the land and the communication breakdown have turned the army into a constellation of splinters, unaware of what is really going on around them.

The following pages tell the odyssey of Comisso through Friuli and Veneto with the retreating armies, until he reaches his home city, Treviso (175); it is the longest episode of the memoir (50 pages out of 230), and its depiction of the chaos after the collapse of the front-line is strikingly similar to what can be found in a well-known masterpiece of English-language modernism, Hemingway's A Farewell to Arms (chapters 27-32). The atmosphere of the two narratives is, however, quite different, even though many details match. While in Hemingway there is a nightmarish feeling of helplessness and powerlessness, with the slow and thick throng of soldiers and refugees blocking the roads that Frederick Henry's ambulance unit should move along to reach safety, Comisso lives his odyssey as an adventure. What we are presented with is, to quote Isnenghi, a "guerra-festa, [...] avventurosa e, a momenti, godibile," che "puo davvero porsi come un oggi privo di ieri, come un'entrata di slancio, fresca, ricettiva, nella propria vita che comincia" (193).

Thus Comisso's memoir manages to subvert the relationship between the artist and tradition, and it also questions cultural memory (Somigli and Moroni 12). Compared to a writer like Gadda, who still believes in the values and ideals of Risorgimento, Comisso seems to have a sort of post-political, even postmodern attitude to the "great discourses" of nationalism and politics. Isnenghi calls it "un'affascinante testimonianza dell'uomo come animale apolitico" (Isnenghi 191). Such an aloofness allows the author of Giorni di guerra to cast a cold glance on the chaos of Caporetto, registering all sorts of comedic episodes--like the looting of chickens and rabbits (158-59) or the requisitioning and maladroit butchering of an ox (170)--with a strong picaresque flavor. Everything is told without any moral qualms, even when the behavior of Comisso and his soldiers is definitely questionable, in a way that reminds of certain pages of another Great War veteran, Ernst Junger (1895-1998)--a polymath who has recently been admitted to the modernist canon/corpus (Welge 551-56)--especially his ironic 1936 colonial memoir Afrikanische Spiele. Here the word Spiele (games, but also manner of playing an instrument and reciting) is a tell-tale one, as Isnenghi used it to summarize the sense of Comisso's war memoir, which "si risolve in una serie di giochi" (233).

4. Malaparte: An Aborted Revolution and Revolutionary Prose Another modernist approach to Caporetto is to be found in Curzio Malaparte's Viva Caporetto!, aka, La rivolta dei santi maledetti. The very form or genre of this work is innovative, compared to the previously discussed texts. Gadda's Giornale is a diary and Comisso's Giorni di guerra is a memoir, both forms being typical of Great War literature in the whole European and American context; even Gadda's pieces in Il castello di Udine are not so different from the lyrical, autobiographic prose frammenti favored by the young Italian literati of the Voce and the Ronda (Debenedetti 13-53); (12) but Malaparte's Viva Caporetto! is much harder to classify.

This compact book puts forth a thesis like a political pamphlet, arguing that the mutiny of many regiments of the Italian army at Caporetto--which refused to counterattack and stop the advancing German and Austrian-Hungarian forces, and either surrendered or abandoned their positions to go home--was not simply an act of cowardice or fear, but should be interpreted as a military strike, as a stillborn revolution. Yet Malaparte's argument is organized as a narrative. In the first page of the text the author states:

E il libro [...] di un uomo qualunque, che e andato in trincea, fante tra fanti [...]. E il libro di un uomo normale, di un uomo "in carne ed ossa" che tutto ha accettato come un sacrificio, come un dovere istintivo [...].

(49)

Viva Caporetto! is in fact a narrative text, even though it is not a conventional novel; its author seems to have operated a radical transformation of the novelistic form (if this text can be read as a novel), in which the protagonist of the story is not a character or a group of characters, but the whole Italian people at arms: "i soldati di fanteria, i malvestiti, i laceri, i sudici, i buffi e miserabili soldati di fanteria" (85), i "figli di puttane" (122). The main character of this narrative is, to put it in Pirandello's terms, uno, nessuno e centomila; actually a few millions. In Viva Caporetto! the focus leaves behind a collective subject, as in this passage:

Ficcato nelle buche e nel fango, roso dai pidocchi, gettato all'assalto contro altre buche fangose ed altri uomini pidocchiosi, il popolo dei soldati, dei buoni e degli ignari, si trovo di fronte ad una cosa imprevista, terribile e inafferrabile, a una macchina fatta di formule, di filo di ferro e di canne rigate, di chimica e di balistica, si trovo a cozzare su un muro d'acciaio, di calcoli e di scienza, invisibile e onnipresente, contro cui nulla poteva la sua povera massa urlante, bestemmiante e piangente, fatta solo di carne, d'ossa e di qualita umane.

La morte meccanica uccideva e straziava, sconvolgeva la terra e i boschi, oscurava il cielo, dilaniava le montagne: e gli uomini, piccoli e grigi, cadevano si rialzavano urlando e si gettavano contro la macchina, contro il muro di calcoli e di formule, contro la morte meccanica che uccideva e straziava--tac tac tac.

(78)

Suddenly the focus shifts to an individual one, as in this brief vignette in which an anonymous infantryman (representative of each individual in the whole group, or social class) meets two well intentioned ladies of the Red Cross, le quali, ogni volta che il fante accettava ringraziando la tazza di brodo o di caffe e la cartolina coi connotati del Re e di Cadorna, esclamavano, contente e commosse:--"Povero soldatino! Quanto sono bravi i nostri soldatini"--senza sapere che "il soldatino bravino e carino", tornando ai carri bestiame della sua tradotta, diceva agli altri innocentemente, con quel sorriso d'ignorante che e una sintesi di tutte le ingenuita: "Ho trovato due troie, in quella baracca, che m'hanno dato un brodo ed una cartolina".--

(125)

The soldier disappears soon after having been conjured up, once he has played his little part in the plot, showing the mutual misunderstanding between members of the lower and higher classes; the story focuses once again on the people, on the collectivity of soldiers, on the santi maledetti.

The question of the genre of Malaparte's work has already been discussed by Barilli, who--before suggesting a bold (and not wholly persuasive) comparison of Malaparte's war writings with Dante's Divine Comedy (24-31)--achieves much more solidity when he traces them back to journalism (22-24). (13) Thus, interpreting Viva Caporetto! as a reportage might not be too reckless a critical move, and one might go so far as to read this book as a forerunner of the American New Journalism of the 1960s and 1970s. Surely this mix of reportage, pamphlet and memoir is firm in its resolve to startle and disturb the public, which is one of the hallmarks of modernist fiction (Levenson 3). Malaparte's style, moreover, rugged and demotic as it is (undoubtedly a journalistic style), is as radical a stylistic experiment as Gadda's own modernist baroque in a time in which the preciousness of the prosa d'arte was the fashion (Debenedetti 48).

The originality of Malaparte's prose is the coupling of a journalistic language with allegorical images, as, for instance, when he wants to depict general Cadorna's iron-handed, almost fanatic idea of discipline and authority by imagining him clad in an armour:

[...] chiuso nella sua lucente armatura di principi e di tradizioni, alto nella sua aristocratica fierezza degna di un secolo piu cattolico e piu legittimista, continuava a premere, col pugno pesante, sul dorso dei soldati curvi nel fango [...].

(125)

Or when he wants readers to visualize the revolt of the accursed saints, the infantrymen who went on strike at Caporetto:

I ciompi, i pezzenti, i ribelli, il carname delle undici battaglie, i rifiuti di tutti i settori e di tutti i reticolati, abbandonarono le trincee e si gettarono contro il paese alzando su gli elmi bruni e sui torrenti di popolo grigioverde i trofei e le insegne della santa e cristianissima fanteria: giubbe lacere e sforacchiate, farsetti a maglia unti e pidocchiosi, elmetti contorti dalle scheggie, scarpe sfondate.

(127)

Further, the representation of the rout as an act of rebellion always has a lively narrative tone, sometimes even theatrical, like when Malaparte lets the "figli di puttane" speak, as if addressing the Italian political and military ruling class, which has sent them to die for twenty-nine months:

Noi non vogliamo piu combattere [...]. Perche sempre noi? Perche voi che urlate, che imprecate, che insultate, non raccogliete i nostri fucili? Tocca o voi, ora. Difendetela, questa patria che dite di amare.

Provatelo, questo vostro amore: provatelo facendovi insultare, massacrare, fucilare, umiliare dagli uomini e dalle leggi, come lo abbiamo provato noi in tanti mesi di Carso e di Dolomiti. [...] Noi, figli di puttane, non vogliamo piu combattere per voi!

(131)

The collective protagonist of this hybrid pamphlet-novel can also talk back--of course as a "we." This is relevant for at least two reasons. First of all, having his collective character, the "santi maledetti" or "figli di puttane," endowed with a voice, Malaparte enhances the narrative features of his text, giving it a diegetic energy that encourages readers to follow the plot of Viva Caporetto! as well as its argumentation. Remarkably, such a plot is quite similar to those of other more or less famous combat novels of the Great War (one might quote as examples Alvaro's Vent'anni or Sassoon's The Complete Memoirs of George Sherston): leaving home and civilian life, being trained, reaching the war theater, seeing more and more signs of death and destruction, entering the wasteland of the trenches; then the first attack, being shocked or wounded or killed, then the realization of what carnage the war actually is, the growing awareness of being no more than chair a canon--all of this is a sort of fixed course mirroring the real life experience of the authors and millions of WWI combatants. But the perspective is different, and those who talk back in the quoted excerpt are not middle-class officers like Lussu, Gadda, or Alvaro (and their British counterparts, Robert Graves, Edmund Blunden, or Siegfried Sassoon), but the ordinary infantrymen, that is, the Italian peasants (workers were too precious for the Italian industries to be sent to the front), wearing the uniform of the Regio Esercito--those peasants who were usually voiceless, as they could not write and spoke a rather shaky Italian.

The presence of these Italian peasants constitutes another relevant modernist feature of the text. Moroni and Somigli suggested that one of the issues thematized by modernism is the emergence of a counterdiscourse of marginalized groups questioning the coherence and unity of modern culture (12). In fact, Isnenghi's Il mito della grande guerra (all its fourth chapter, "La truppa," discusses this matter in detail) has made it clear that most Italian soldiers-writers presented the umile fante as an illiterate peasant, unable really to understand the reasons of the war, untouched by the patriotic values of the ruling and middle classes (the values of modern liberalism), resigned to obey and fight, at the same time victim and instrument of what Isnenghi labelled "un imperialismo insicuro" (346). Malaparte questions the coherence and unity of what was in 1921 a modern (and victorious) Italy; in fact, for Isnenghi, Malaparte, "[capovolgendo il punto di vista sulla guerra, filtrando gli avvenimenti attraverso un'ottica rovesciata, contesta insieme il ruolo sociale del proletariato delle trincee (dalla rassegnazione alla rivolta) e il ruolo degli ufficiali subalterni" (360).

Of course Malaparte's move is not free from contradictions; Isnenghi warns us that, though the writer had joined the war as an infantryman, and came from a working-class family, he was, like Gadda, a staunch interventista, and volunteered to fight in France at 16 when Italy had not joined the war yet; he became a lieutenant in 1917; he was trusted and respected by the establishment of the Italian Army (he was a protege of general Peppino Garibaldi, the grandson of Giuseppe, and Malaparte's commanding officer). Yet the perspective which structures his hybrid book, the point of view of a lower middle-class intellectual who believes that the Italian soldiers' refusal to fight at Caporetto was the harbinger of an oncoming revolution (similar to the one which took place in Russia in that fateful October 1917), and that the piccolo-borghesi like him should ally themselves with the proletarians, with the "santi maledetti," not the tottering Italian ruling classes, must necessarily also allow (or appropriate) the point of view of the marginalized peasants who made up most of the Regio Esercito.

No wonder then that Malaparte contrasts the soldiers on their military strike--leaving the trenches and their assigned positions after the collapse of the front-line, throwing away their rifles (they are also called "i senza-fucile" 137) and heading home--with the members of the upper and middle classes who thrived behind the front line. The whole tenth chapter describes the terrified and hysterical reactions of those--staff officers, war profiteers, Red Cross dames, shirkers of all sorts, and so forth--who "non riuscivamo] a capire perche i fanti non volessero piu combattere e difenderli" (129). (14) To put it in Malaparte's terms:

Il fenomeno di Caporetto e un fenomeno strettamente sociale.
E una rivoluzione.
E la rivolta di una classe, di una mentalita, di uno stato d'animo,
   contro un'altra classe,
un'altra mentalita, un altro stato d'animo.
E una forma di lotta di classe.
(119)

Tellingly, Malaparte's comment on the mayhem during the general retreat is: "[i]l riso rosso travolgeva ogni cosa" (137). The "red laughter" hints at the fact that during the retreat many soldiers got drunk on wine found in the houses they ransacked along the way, but it also hints at the Russian revolution which was raging in the same days. The color red creates a metaphoric connection between the Bolshevik revolution and the rebellion of the Italian soldiers, which Malaparte strives to depict as a "rivoluzione iniziatasi il 24 Ottobre del 1917 e non ancora giunta al suo termine logico" (139). Besides, an overt parallel between the two events is traced: "I due avvenimenti iniziali--facce diverse di uno stesso fenomeno--la rivoluzione russa e la rivolta di Caporetto, hanno dato origine a due movimenti paralleli, tesi ad un unico termine, ma l'uno e l'altro da un diverso spirito animati" (146). No wonder that Malaparte resorted to revolutionary literary techniques to paint the fresco of such a revolutionary event, so that his debut work should be seen as a manifestation of that wider literary revolution known as modernism. (15)

Malaparte himself was well aware of this climate of impending transformation, of the palingenetic expectations which animated the European society in those years:

Tutti i valori sociali e morali della vita si confusero: tutte le relazioni fra uomo e uomo, tra l'uomo e lo stato, fra l'uomo e la macchina, fra l'uomo e la terra, fra l'uomo e l'infinito, furono riprese in esame. L'uomo, ridivenuto umano, si accinse alla trasformazione della vita.

(144-45)

Such a paragraph spells out an original definition of what we mean by modernism: a very interesting rephrasing and interpretation of Ezra Pound's motto "Make it new!"

5. Concluding Remarks

Summarizing our discussion, we may say that these three authors--Gadda, Comisso, Malaparte--lived the same event (or better, different faces of the same event) in very different ways: Caporetto was a disaster and a disgrace to Gadda; an adventure to Comisso; a miscarried revolution to Malaparte. Yet they all had either to tackle the event with unconventional narrative techniques (Gadda through his modernist pieces and his diary, Malaparte through his pamphlet-novel-reportage), or tell with an elegantly classical style a story whose plot is--when it comes to the days of the rout of Caporetto in Comisso's memoir--totally destructured, an episodic odyssey in a disaster area. Saying that these three authors deliberately embraced a modernist approach to narration would be a distortion; probably it is safer to say that they were compelled to invent their own modernist solutions, which show, as we have seen, so many and remarkable points of contact with the experiences of the major figures of modernism active before, during and after the Great War. We started by outlining a triangular relationship connecting Italian studies, modernism and war literature. After having explored three quite different narratives of the battle of Caporetto and how they may qualify as modernist works--keeping in mind Somigli's insightful contention that we should "speak not so much of modernism as of modernisms" ("In the Shadow" 926) in the Italian context--a conclusion may be drawn: a more accurate mapping and a deeper understanding of the relationship among the corpus of Italian Great war narratives, the wider European cultural and artistic context (modernism) and the Italian historical and cultural context enables us to open promising perspectives on such works as the Giornale di guerra e di prigionia, Il Castello di Udine, Giorni di guerra and Viva Caporetto! The discussion on war literature and modernism, however, may contribute to Italian studies not only by allowing new interpretations of Gadda, Comisso, and Malaparte (possibly well beyond their war narratives); the interaction between modernism, war literature and Italian studies may also help critics to reassess certain marginal texts, such as Alvaro's Vendami or Palazzeschi's Due imperi ... mancati, or bring about new readings of more canonical texts (Lussu's Un anno sull'altipiano comes unavoidably to mind) or minor texts of canonical authors (such as Marinetti's L'alcova d'acciaio).

All in all, we might discover that the road to a better understanding of the Novecento (maybe the real golden century of Italian literature) runs through the dismal trenches and the ravaged no man's land of First World War battlefields. It is time that these territories were thoroughly charted, completing the pioneering exploration carried out by Isnenghi. Like the recuperanti--those people, usually living in the areas of northeast Italy where the battles of WWI took place, who earned their living by retrieving metal and explosives from the ammunition and discarded equipment scattered on the battlefields--(16) critics should start scavenging the wastelands created by technologized warfare, looking for the relics of modernity.

Independent scholar

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Dombroski, Robert S. Gadda e il barocco. Torino: Bollati Boringhieri, 2002.

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(1) Isnenghi discusses how Italian writers and intellectuals dealt with the crisis of liberalism brought about by the war, and devised an array of literary strategies to tackle this issue; it is the main argument of Il mito della grande guerra, particularly evident in the discussion of Malaparte and Mariani (354-66).

(2) A more updated bibliography can be found in Carta.

(3) As for the distinction between war novel and combat novel, see Jones.

(4) This volume collects Gadda's Giornale guerra e di prigionia, published by Sansoni in 1955 (then, in an edition that also included the "Giornale di campagna," by Einaudi in 1965), and the Taccuino di Caporetto, posthumously published by Garzanti in 1991.

(5) For a discussion which also takes into account Italian writers, see Rossi, Secolo 159-72.

(6) Contini went so far as to declare that Gadda "aveva cominciato da professionista, non da dilettante" with his Giornale di guerra e di prigionia (Contini viii).

(7) Carta reads the nicknames Gadda used in his Giornale as a "strategia testuale per provare a recidere un legame con quanto di se e del mondo circostante [...] rifiuta" (102); but this game seems to be inspired more by playfulness and self-mocking than by the "sdoppiamento dell'io in un altro se rimosso" hypothesized by Carta. A different opinion is expressed by Dombroski, who sees Gadda's alter egos as "una figura allegorica che insieme rivela e contiene (protegge) l'autore" (Dombroski, Barocco 14).

(8) "Mi manca l'energia, la severita, la sicurezza di me stesso, proprie dell'uomo che non pensa troppo, che non si macera con mille considerazioni, che non pondera i suoi atti col bilancino, ma che agisce, agisce, agisce a furia di spontaneita e di estrinsecazione volitiva naturalmente eseguita" (199).

(9) Of course here I am simplifying a much more complex transition from the cultural and literary climate of the Risorgimento (including the heroic status of the writer seen as a vate), to the crisis of romantic, nationalist and heroic values in post-1870 Italy, a context outlined by Somigli in his discussion of decadentismo ("In the Shadow" 912-15).

(10) In this regard Lucchini comments: "Se il rapporto di filiazione [between Giornale and Castello] e indubbio, non puo sfuggire la maggior asciuttezza del dettato seriore, che [...] condensa gli appunti giovanili di guerra [...]" (11).

(11) Carta's analysis of the contradiction between Gadda's almost fanatic devotion to his mission (as a soldier and an officer) and the weakness of his body, which often falls short of Gadda's own heroic expectations, seems to me more sensitive to the contradictory texture of the Giornale than Mileschi's reading, which maintains that the inner conflict between Gadda's patriotic (and authoritarian) beliefs and his doubts about them (and their consequences) only arises in his later works.

(12) It must be underscored, however, that the Castello was published in a period in which frammentismo was making way for those writers who strove to "reinventare in Italia il genere romanzo" (Debenedetti 13).

(13) I also find extremely insightful and intriguing Barilli's suggestion that Malaparte might be better understood by connecting him to other European figures of polymaths such as Malraux, Sait-Exupery, Silone, Sartre, and Camus (31-13). To these names one should probably add Orwell and Alvaro.

(14) Here Malaparte reformulates in a radical fashion the opposition between the world of the soldiers and that of the civilians which is so common in war literature (Rossi, Secolo 29-31).

(15) That Malaparte ultimately supported Fascism does not necessarily make his inclusion in the modernist canon untenable, as the idea of a Fascist modernism has been proposed as dialectically complementary to its anti-authoritarian counterpart (Welge).

(16) A description of this thankless and dangerous job, which was, however, attractive to the poor Italian mountain communities of the 1920s and 1930s, and the life of recuperanti in the Asiago plateau, can be found in Mario Rigoni Stem's 1995 novel Le stagioni di Giacomo.