How types of organisational cultures contribute in shaping learning organisations.

Fard, Hasan Danaee ; Rostamy, Ali Asghar Anvary ; Taghiloo, Hamid 等

Abstract

The main purpose of this empirical study is to examine the relationship between four types of organisational cultures and the shaping learning organisation. In this study, we have selected two groups of public organisations (more successful and less successful public organisations). The sample of this study comprises senior employees of these two groups. Results of Spearman Rank Correlation and Fridman tests reveal that there is a significant correlation between organisational cultures and learning organisations in Iranian public organisations. In addition, we found that although participative culture has a higher correlation coefficient, but learning culture has the highest ranking among different types of cultures.

Key Words: Learning organisation theory, Learning public organisations, Organisational culture, Bureaucratic culture, Competitive culture, Participative culture, Learning culture

Introduction

This article investigates how types of organisational cultures con tribute in shaping learning organisation in the public service system. Organisational culture has been defined from various perspectives (Carroll and Nafukho, 2006; Popper and Lipshitz, 1995; Shien, 1990; Alvesson, 2002; Cook and Yanow, 1993; Adler and Jelinek, 1996; Argris, 1999). For example, according to Marguardt (2002), culture is "an organisation's values, beliefs, practices, rituals and customs". The culture of a learning organisation habitually learns and works to integrate processes in all organisation functions. In effect, the learning organisation's culture is constantly evolving and travels along an infinite continuum in a harmonious learning environment. Ultimately, the goal is an exchange of useful knowledge leading to innovation, and improved learning public organisations.

All organisations, including public organisations, must be adaptive in a rapidly changing environment, if they wish to continue their businesses The key to the survival of organisations is learning, not individual learning itself, but emerging learning in the organisation. Organisation learning is different from learning organisation (Ortenbland, 2001; Dodgson, 1993; Kim, 1993; Shrivastva, 1983; Gardiner and Whiting, 1997; Dymock and McCarty, 2006). Thus, researchers have focused on applicability of learning organisation theory in practice. Many researchers study its application in private organisations and the factors for promoting it (Dymock and McCarty, 2006; Chang and Lee, 2007; Chouek and Armstrong, 1998; Savalainen, 2000; Huber, 1991; Jacobs, 1995) but few studies have been conducted about how public organisations can become learning organisations. Accordingly, most of the researchers believe that learning increases the performance of organisations.

Some studies have looked at performance and sustained competitiveness (Lo'Pez et al, 2006). Coutu (2002) stated: "We don't know a lot about organisational learning. Sure, we know how to improve the learning of an individual or small team, but we don't know how to systematically intervene in culture to create transformational learning across the organisation". This statement supports the need to continue the study of culture as a variable that facilitates and support the shaping of learning organisations. Previous researchers (for example, Carroll and Nafukho, 2006; Popper and Lipshitz, 1995; Aksu and Ozdemir, 2005; Dension and Mishra, 1995; Chang and Lee, 2007) have studied about culture, but not various cultures and effects on promoting performance.

In Iran, the performance of public service organisations is low. We think that one of the most important reasons for this is that the Iranian public service organisations suffer from lack of a kind of organisational culture that promotes learning in these organisations. In other words, Iranian public service organisations need to change to become learning organisations. Accordingly, we suggest that Iranian public organisations have to shape learning organisations by building a learning culture.

The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationships between types of cultures (bureaucratic, competitive, participative, and learning culture) as an independent variable, and learning organisation as a dependent variable.

Literature Review

Organisational Culture

According to researchers, within any society, organisation members similarly engage in rituals, pass along corporate myths and stories, and use arcane jargon, and these informal practices may foster or hinder management's goal for the organisation (Baker, 1980; Deal and Kennedy, 1982; Peters and Waterman, 1982). Various private or public organisations come with their inherent culture to influence the organisational operation. Schein (1990) states that organisational culture consists of two layers of concepts, namely, visible and invisible characteristics. The visible layer means external building, clothing, behaviour modes, regulations, stories, myths, language, and rites. On the other hand, the invisible layer means common values, norms, faith, and assumptions of business organisational members.

In the current management literature on organisational culture (for example, Deal and Kennedy, 1982; Peters and Waterman, 1982) which includes the work of Schein (1990), culture is widely understood as an instrument to be used by management to shape and control in some way the belief, understandings, and behaviours of individuals, and thus the organisation to reach specified goals. Therefore, a number of definitions for any organisational culture have been proposed (for example, Kilman et al, 1985; Uttal, 1983). Many studies have been conducted about the impact oforganisational culture on different variables in the organisational setting. In such research, for example, the impact of organisational culture on job satisfaction (Lund, 2003), individual learning (Aksu and Ozdemir, 2005), organisational effectiveness (Denison, 1990; Denison and Mishra, 1995), leadership (Kasper, 2002; Chang and Lee, 2007; Schein, 1992), organisational problem-solving (Bate, 1984), creativity (Koberg and Chusmir, 1987) organisational commitment (Lock and Crawford, 1999), organisational performance (Wilkins and Ouchi, 1983), TQM (Pool, 2000) communication and information (Brown and Starkey, 1994).

In our research, we applied Hellrigle and Slocam's typology of organisational culture. (See Figure 1).

Learning Organisation

Learning is the power of growth, and individual learning is the resource of business growth (Chang and Lee, 2007). Based on the organisation metaphor in organisation theory, Senge (1990) introduced learning organisation theory. The academic definition of the learning organisation covers individual, group, and organisational learning with the effort for organisational and individual learning (Argris and Schon, 1978; Dodgson, 1993; Kim, 1993; Popper and Lipshitz, 1995; Shrivastva, 1983; Small and Irvine 2006). It is a type of collective activity to reach the organisation's shared vision. Many books (for example, Dixon, 1994; Garratt, 1990; Armstrong and Foley, 2003; Senge, 1990) have been published about the learning organisation and many research papers have presented the impact of various variables on learning organisations (for example, Carroll and Nafukho, 2006; Leitch et al, 1996; Gardiner and Whiting, 1997; Hall, 2001 ; Ortenbland, 2004; Edmondson and Moingeon 1998).

Conceptual and Operational Models

In this research, we focus mainly on five dimensions of learning organisations: personal mastery, improving mental model, building shared vision, team building, and systematic thinking proposed by Senge (1990), as criteria for measuring the learning organisation. There are various typologies of organisational cultures (Kono and Clegg, 1998). In this research, we study the relationship between organisational culture and shaping learning public organisations. Also, in order to determine the highest priority culture, we used Hellringel and Slocum's organisational cultures' typology (1994). Figures 2 and 3 show the conceptual and the operational framework of this research.

Research Methodology

Research Hypotheses

This research is based on a descriptive-analytical survey. Based on the literature review and the research conceptual framework (see Figure 2), the following research hypotheses are defined as:

H1. There will be a significant relationship between organisational cultures and degree of shaping learning organisations.

H11. There will be a negative significant relationship between bureaucratic culture and degree of shaping learning organisations.

H12. There will be a negative significant relationship between competitive culture and degree of shaping learning organisations.

H13. There will be a positive significant relationship between participative culture and degree of shaping learning organisations.

H14. There will be a positive significant relationship between learning culture and degree of shaping learning organisations.

Measurements and Instruments

The instruments of this study are:

1) A Likert 30-item questionnaire, which was designed to assess the organisation in terms of a learning organisation

2) A Likert 27-item questionnaire, which was designed to assess the organisational culture.

With the major contribution from Senge (1990), we have selected the five dimensions of Personal mastery, Mental models, Shared visions, Systems thinking, and Team learning to measure a learning organisation.

[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]

[FIGURE 2 OMITTED]

Figure 3: The Operational Framework

Types of Organisational Cultures

Bureaucratic Culture
1. Inflexibility
2. Rigid regulations & rules
3. High level of centralisation
4. Affirmative leadership style

Competitive Culture
1. High flexibility
2. Low integration
3. Contract relations between employee
   and the organisation
4. Low loyalty
5. Low cultural identity
6. Achieving to quantitative objectives

Participative Culture
1. Low flexibility
2. High integration
3. Loyalty
4. Personal Commitment
5. Team working
6. High level of society acceptance
7. Tendency to satiability

Learning Culture
1. Trend to change
2. Knowledge expansion
3. Sensitive and responsive to
   external changes
4. Complex environment
5. Competitive advantage
6. Informed about the environment
7. Gathering environmental information
   and process
8. Service development
9. Encourage innovation, creativity
   and learning
10. Organisational commitment

Learning Organisations' Dimensions

Personal Mastery
1. Try to achieve the goals
2. Try to improve the ability
3. Skill and ability
4. Be informed of the updated knowledge
5. Continuous improvement of the activities
6. Skill development

Mental Models
1. Simple opinion about the problems
2. Serotype view points
3. Accepting others opinions
4. Rationality in problem solving
5. Believe to find better alternative
6. Irrational Advocacy

Shared Vision
1. Common objective
2. Commitment to the vision
3. Participating in defining organisational
   general & main objectives
4. Commitment to achieve organisational
   general & main objectives
5. Homogeneity of individual and organisational
   objectives
6. Clearity and transparency of organisational
   general & main objectives

Systemic Thinking
1. Use of system thinking
2. Attention to the effects of decisions
3. Try to find causes of the problems
4. Considering & monitoring changes in
   organisation's external environment
5. Able to make comprehensive decisions

Team Learning
1. Tend to dialogue and discussion
2. Information exchange in decision-making
3. Group assessment & evaluation
4. Commitment to group decision-making
5. Importance of team learning and training
6. Using others' experiences

In order to measure the organisational culture, we have focused on Hellrigle and Slocum's typology of organisational culture.

Two instruments (learning organisation and organisational culture) utilised a five- point scale that ranged from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree". The first version of the questionnaire was originally pilot-tested on a group of 30 participants for more clarity. Furthermore, a group of 10 experts in the human resource departments of public organisations reviewed the instruments for content validity. The revised version of the instruments was then administrated to two groups of Iranian public organisations.

In this study, we have selected two groups of public organisations, namely, the more successful and less successful public organisations. The sample of this study comprises senior employees of these two groups which totaled 140 participants.

Reliability tests were conducted and the instruments were further refined and expanded. As stated earlier, in its final format, the learning organisation questionnaire consisted 30 items, and organisational culture questionnaire consisted of 27 items. The overall reliability of the first questionnaire that is measured by Chronbach Alpha Coefficient was 94 per cent and the reliability of the second questionnaire was 85 per cent. Finally, in order to test the hypotheses, the Spearman Rank Correlation and Friedman Ranking tests were applied.

Table 1 and 2 show the dimensions of learning organisations (Senge, 1990) and the dimensions of organisational culture and their definitions (Hellrigle and Slocum, 1994).

Statistical Analysis Results

Table 3 shows the result of the Spearman Rank Correlation test and Table 4 explains the priority ranking of different organisational cultures in Iranian public organisations.

According to Table 3, we found the following results in terms of our research hypotheses at a significant level of 5 per cent:

* There is a significant positive relationship between organisational cultures and the degree of shaping learning organisations.

* There is a significant negative relationship between bureaucratic culture and the degree of shaping learning organisations.

* There is a significant negative relationship between competitive culture and the degree of shaping learning organisations.

* There is a significant positive relationship between participative culture and the degree of shaping learning organisations.

* There is a significant positive relationship between learning culture and the degree of shaping learning organisations.

In addition, according Table 4, we found that learning culture has the highest influence among bureaucratic, competitive, participative, and learning culture on shaping and improving learning public organisations. Although participative culture shows a higher correlation coefficient with learning organisation, learning culture has the highest ranking among different types of cultures.

Conclusions and Remarks

This research investigates the relation between organisational culture and the degree of shaping learning public organisation. It also determines the highest priority organisational culture among different types of cultures in terms of their influences on shaping learning public organisations. We found that there is a significant positive relationship between organisational culture and the degree of shaping learning organisation in public organisations. The results indicate that learning organisational culture has the highest influence culture among bureaucratic, competitive, participative, and learning organisational culture. The findings suggest that Iranian learning public organisations develop programmes that improve organisational learning culture, learning and creativity, system thinking, team working, and participation level in their organisations. Iranian learning public organisations should attempt to remove the obstacles to creativity by using participative management system and delegation of the authority to subordinates. In order to provide on time, relevant, and accurate information for decision-making, Iranian learning public organisations need to design an organisational total information system, and organisational and managerial experience documentation systems. Because of differences between Iranian learning public organisations and private organisations, we also suggest that other researchers repeat the same research in other types of organisation to compare the results in different types of organisations.

References

Adler NJ and M Jelinek, 1996. "'Is 'Organisational Culture' Culture Bound?", Human Resource Management. Vol 25, pp 73-90.

Aksu AA and B Ozdemir, 2005. "Individual Learning and Organisation Culture in Learning Organisation: Five-Star Hotels in Antalya Region of Turkey", Managerial Auditing Journal, Vol 20 No 4, pp 422-441.

Alvesson M, 2002. Understanding Organisational Culture, London: Sage.

Argris C and DA Schon, 1978. Organisation Learning. A Theory of Action Perspective, Harlow: Addison-Wesley.

Argris D, 1999. On Organisational Learning, 2e, Oxford: Blackwell. Business.

Armstrong A and P Foley, 2003. "Foundation for a Learning Organization: Organization Learning Mechanisms", The Learning Organization, Vol 10 No 2, pp 74-82.

Baker EL, 1980. "Managing Corporate Culture", Management Review, Vol 69, pp 8-13.

Bate P, 1984. "The Impact of Organisational Culture on Approaches to Organisational Problem-solving", Organisation Studies, Vol 5, pp 43-66.

Brown A and K Starkey, 1994. "The Effect of Organisational Culture on Communication and Information", Journal of Management Studies, Vol 31 No 6, pp 807-828.

Chang Su-chao and Ming-Shing Lee, 2007. "A Study on Relationship among Leadership, Organisational Culture, the Operation of Learning Organisation and Employee, Job Satisfaction", The Learning Organisation, Vol 14 No 2, pp 155-185.

Caroll MG and FM Nafukho, 2006. "Culture, Organisational Learning and Selected Employee Background Variables in Small-size Business Enterprises", Journal of European Industrial Training, Vol 31 No 2, pp 127-144.

Choueke R and R Armstrong, 1998. "The Learning Organisation in Small and Medium-sized Enterprises: A Destination or a Journey?", International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, Vol 4 No 2, pp 129-140.

Cook SDN and D Yanow, 1993. "Culture and Organisational Learning", Journal of Management Inquiry, Vol 2 No 4, pp 373-390.

Coutu DL, 2002. "The Anxiety of Learning", Harvard Business Review, Vol 80 No 3, pp 2-8.

Deal TE and AA Kennedy, 1982. Corporate Culture: The Rights and Rituals of Corporate Life, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Denison DR and AK Mishra, 1995. "Toward a Theory of Organisational Culture and Effectiveness", Organisation Science, Vol 6 No 2, pp 204-223.

Denison DR, 1990. Corporate Culture and Organisational Effectiveness, New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Dixon N, 1994. The Organisational Learning Cycle: How We Can Learn Collectively. Maidenhead: McGraw-Hill.

Dodgson M, 1973. "Organisational Learning: A Review of Some Literatures", Organisation Studies, Vol 14, pp 375-394.

Dymock D and C McCarthy, 2006. "Towards a Learning Organisation? Employee Perceptions", The Learning Organisation, Vol 13 No 5, pp 525-536.

Edmondson A and B Moingeon, 1998. "From Organisational Learning to the Learning Organisation", Management Learning, Vol 29 No 1, pp 5-20.

Gardiner P and P Whiting, 1997. "Success Factors in Learning Organisation: An Empirical Study", Industrial and Commercial Training, Vol 29 No 2, pp 41-48.

Garralt B, 1990. Creating a Learning Organisation: A Guide to Leadership, Learning and Development, Cambridge: Director Books.

Hall BP, 2001. "Values Development and Learning Organisations", Journal of Knowledge Management, Vol 5 No 1, pp 19-32.

Hellringel D and J Slocum, 1994. Management, 6th ed, New York: Addison-Wesley.

Jacobs RL, 1995. "Impressions about the Learning Organisation: Looking to See What is Behind the Curtain", Human Research Development Quarterly, Vol 6 No 2, pp 119-122.

Huber GP, 1991. "Organisational Learning and the Contributing Processes and the Literatures", Organisation Science. Vol 2 No 1, pp 88-115.

Kasper H, 2002. "Culture and Leadership in Market-oriented Service Organisations", European Journal of Marketing, Vol 36 No 9, pp 1047-1057.

Kilman R, MM Saxton and R Serpa, 1985. "Introduction: Five Key Issues in Understanding and Changing Culture", in Kilman, RH, MY Saxton, R Serpa, and associates (eds), Learning Control of the Corporate Culture, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Kim DH, 1993. "The Link between Individual and Organisational Learning", Sloan Management Review, Vol 34 No 1, pp 37-50.

Koberg CS and LH Chusmir, 1987. "Organisation Culture Relationships with Creativity and Other Job-related Variables", Journal of Business Research, Vol 15, pp 397-409.

Leithch C, R Harrison, J Burgoyne, and C Blantern, 1996. "Learning Organisations: The Measurement of Company Performance", Journal of European Industrial Training, Vol 20 No 1, pp 31-44.

Lock P and J Crawford, 1999. "The Relationship between Commitment and Organisational Culture, Subculture, Leadership Style and Job Satisfaction in Organisational Change and Development", Leadership and Organisational Development Journal, Vol 20, pp 365-373.

Lo'Pez, SP, JMM Peo and CJV Ordas, 2006. "Organisational Learning as a Determining Factor in Business Performance", The Learning Organisation, Vol 12 No 3, pp 227-245.

Lund DB, 2003. "Organisational Culture and Job Satisfaction", Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing, Vol 18 No 3, pp 219-236.

Marguardt MJ, 2002. Building the Learning Organisation, New York: McGraw-Hill.

Ortenbland A, 2004. "The Learning Organisation: Towards an Integrated Model", The Learning Organisation, Vol 11 No 2, pp 129-144.

--, 2001. "On Differences between Organisational Learning and Learning Organisation", The Learning Organisation, Vol 8 No 3, pp 125-133.

Peters TJ and RH Waterman, 1982. In Search of Excellence: Lessons from America's Best-run Companies, New York: Harper & Row.

Pool SW, 2000. "The Learning Organisation: Motivating Employees by Integrating TQM Philosophy in a Supportive Organisational Culture", Leadership & Organizational Development Journal, Vol 21 No 8, pp 373-378.

Popper M and R Lipshitz, 1995. Organisational Learning Mechanisms: A Structural Cultural Approach to Organisational Learning, Haifa: University of Haifa.

Savolainen T, 2000. "How Organisations Promote and Avoid Learning: Development of Positive and Negative Learning Cycles", Journal of Workplace Learning, Vol 12 No 5, pp 195-204.

Schein EH, 1990. "Organisational Culture", American Psychologist, Vol 45, pp 109-119.

--, 1992. Organisational Culture and Leadership, 2e, San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Senge PM, 1990. The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organisation, New York: Douldeday.

--, 1990. "The Leader's New Work: Building Learning Organisations", Sloan Management Review, Fall, pp 7-23.

Shrivastva P, 1983. "A Typology of Organisational Learning Systems", Journal of Management Studies, Vol 20, pp 7-28.

Small A and P Irvine, 2006. "Towards a Framework for Organisational Learning", The Learning Organisation, Vol 13 No 3, pp 276-299.

Uttal B, 1983. "The Corporate Culture Vultures", Fortune, Vol 108 No 8, p 66.

Wilkins A and WG Ouchi, 1983. "Efficient Cultures: Exploring the Relationship between Culture and Organisational Performance", Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol 28, pp 468-481.

Hasan Danaee Fard

Ali Asghar Anvary Rostamy

Hamid Taghiloo

Tarbiat Modares University

Table 1: Dimensions of Learning Organisations and their
Definitions

Dimensions           Definitions

Personal mastery     Create and environment that encourage
                       personal and organisational goals to
                       be developed and realised partnership
Mental models        Know that a persons internal picture of
                       their environment will shape their
                       decision and behaviour
Shared visions       Build essence of group commitment by
                       developing shared images of the future
Systems thinking     Develop the ability to see the big picture
                       within an organisation and understand
                       how change is one area affect the whole
                       system
Team learning        Transform conversational and collective
                       thinking skill, so that a group's
                       capacity to reliably develop intelligence
                       and ability is greater than the sum of
                       its individual member's talents.

Source: Senge, 1990

Table 2: Dimensions of Organisational Culture and their
Definitions

Dimensions                Definitions

Bureaucratic culture      A type of organisational culture
                            characterised by low
                            environmental adaptation and
                            low internal integration
Competitive culture       A type of organisational culture
                            characterised by high environmental
                            adaptation and low internal
                            integration
Participative culture     A type of organisational culture
                            characterised by low environmental
                            adaptation and high internal
                            integration
Learning culture          A type of organisational culture
                            characterised by high environmental
                            adaptation and high internal
                            integration

Source: Hellrigle and Slocum, 1994

Table 3: Results of Correlation Tests

                     Dependent            Independent
Hypotheses           Variables             Variable

H1            Organisational cultures    Learning organisation
H11           Bureaucratic culture       Learning organisation
H12           Competitive culture        Learning organisation
H13           Participative culture      Learning organisation
H14           Learning culture           Learning organisation

                    Correlation           Significant
Hypotheses             Values                Level         Results

H1            0.401                      0.05            H1 Confirmed
H11          -0.48                       0.05            H1 Confirmed
H12          -0.399                      0.05            H1 Confirmed
H13           0.384                      0.05            H1 Confirmed
H14           0.337                      0.05            H1 Confirmed

Table 4: Rank of Different Organisational Cultures in
Iranian Public Service Organisations

Organisation                           Standard     Rank of
Cultures                  Rank Mean   Deviations    Cultures

Learning culture            4.92         0.662         1
Participative culture       3.16          0.6          2
Competitive culture         2.71         0.626         3
Bureaucrataic culture       2.01         0.651         4