God images following Hurricane Katrina in South Mississippi: an exploratory study.

Aten, Jamie D. ; Moore, Michael ; Denney, Ryan M. 等

God image appears to affect an individual's ability to cope, either positively or negatively, following stressful life events. This qualitative investigation explored God images of Hurricane Katrina survivors two months after the storm along the Mississippi Gulf Coast. A multifaceted, and sometimes paradoxical view of God emerged from participants' narratives following Hurricane Katrina. The following conceptualizations of God were reported by participants: (a) Omnipresent God, (b) Omnipotent God, (c) Distant God, (d) Personal God, (e) God in Others, (f) God as Judge, (g) God of Lessons, and (h) God as Loving Father Figure. God images reported by participants appeared to serve as a coping mechanism that allowed participants to make meaning and adjust to their Hurricane Katrina experiences.

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On the morning of August 29th, 2005 Hurricane Katrina violently descended onto the Gulf Coast of the United States. Hurricane Katrina was the third strongest recorded hurricane to make landfall in the United States, as well as one of the most costly and deadliest hurricanes in United States history. The massive storm surge produced by Hurricane Katrina measured between 24-28 feet, spanning a distance of 20 miles along the western coast of Mississippi. Officials in the state of Mississippi estimate that 90% of the structures that were located half a mile inland from the coastline were destroyed. Additionally, reports indicate that the storm surge traveled approximately six miles inland in certain areas of the Mississippi coast (The Weather Channel, 2006). Individuals living on the Gulf Coast of Mississippi and other areas affected by Hurricane Katrina have suffered financial loss, physical problems, and emotional trauma; the effects of which are still felt by many today (Kessler, Galea, Jones, & Parker, 2006).

INTRODUCTION

In the aftermath of a natural disaster, much of the attention from the popular media typically focuses on the physical and financial losses caused by such disasters. However, effects of a disaster may also permeate many areas of an individual's life, such as religious and/or spiritual beliefs. Some disaster survivors' spiritual beliefs may be affected negatively through the traumatic experience resulting in a questioning of the existence of God, feelings of abandonment by God, or more severely in a complete loss of faith (Koenig, 2006). Conversely, other disaster survivors may have their spiritual beliefs strengthened. For instance, individuals surveyed following the September 11th terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center reported an increase in spirituality (Peterson & Seligman, 2003).

God Image

God image, or the way an individual views God (e.g., caring, stern, wrathful), has begun to receive greater attention in the psychological literature (e.g., Wiegand & Weiss, 2006). An estimated 95% of surveyed Americans acknowledged having a belief in God or some form of a higher power (Gallup & Lindsay, 1999). Several suggestions have been given as to the origins of God image. For instance, Dickie, Eshleman, Merasco, Shepard, VanderWilt, and Johnson (1997) found that children's images of God appeared to be linked to the way in which those children perceived their parents. Similarly, various psychodynamic theorists have suggested that there may be a link between God image and an individual's biological father, wherein individuals project the characteristics of their earthly father onto their image of God (Hood, Spilka, Hunsberger, & Gorsuch, 1996). In contrast, Hoge, Johnson, and Luidens (1993) found that in adults, current life events and self-concept were better predictors of God image. Researchers have also postulated that God image may be better understood through developmental explanations. For example, Nye and Carlson (1984) found that children's concepts of God appear to parallel the stages of cognitive development as outlined by Piaget.

God Image and Trauma

Often in times of distress and need, individuals may look toward their religious beliefs to help them cope and work through a given experience. Religious beliefs may encompass several different attitudes and values including an individual's concept or image of God. One's concept of God may influence the way an individual reacts to or is affected by a particular life event ("Wiegand & Weiss, 2006). Similarly, God image may be utilized to explain events or occurrences that are beyond understanding or out of one's control (Hood et al., 1996). The negative impact of trauma on God image can have deleterious effects on an individual's coping and health. For instance, Exline, Yali, and Lobel (1999) found that individuals who felt alienated by God had difficulty forgiving God for problems in their life. They also found that difficulty forgiving God was predictive of anxiety and depression within participants. It appears that those who maintain or develop a positive image of God following a stressful trauma stand to cope more effectively and gain greater health benefits than those who hold a more negative image of God (e.g., Cotton et al., 2006 Gall, Miguez de Renart, & Boonstra, 2000; Gall, 2004).

While some individuals may develop a negative view of God following a traumatic event, there are others whose image of God is strengthened or maintained in a positive direction despite enduring such an event. Individuals who feel that God will take care of them in times of trauma, as well as individuals who believe God will answer their prayers, may experience reduced anxiety in the face of a traumatic event (Koenig, 2006). Similarly, Hood et al. (1996) postulate that the view of an omnipresent, omniscient, and omnipotent God may be beneficial to the holder of these God concepts by adding meaning to a stressful situation, resulting in an increased ability to cope with life events. For example, Gall (2004) found that prostate cancer patients who believed God to be benevolent and kindly displayed psychosocial adjustment and quality of life. Similarly, Gall et al. (2000) found that breast cancer survivors who viewed God as benevolent and present in their lives reported lower intensity of psychological distress and greater amounts of optimism respectively.

PURPOSE STATEMENT

Overall, very little attention has been given to exploring God images following natural disasters. God image appears to affect an individual's ability to cope, either positively or negatively, with stressful life events. Therefore, it may be beneficial to explore the effects natural disasters have on an individual's image of God in order to better understand how survivors cope when faced with such disasters. Thus, the purpose of this qualitative investigation is to explore God images of Hurricane Katrina survivors two months after Hurricane Katrina along the Mississippi Gulf Coast.

METHOD

Participants

Purposive snowball sampling procedures were used to select participants for this study. Two researchers from the research team who lived on the Mississippi Gulf Coast served as informants for identifying and contacting potential participants in Waveland, Gulfport, Biloxi, and Ocean Springs, Mississippi. Each of these coastal communities was severely affected by Hurricane Katrina. Twenty-one participants took part in the study. Participants' ages ranged from 26 to 73 years with a mean age of 48.22. The sample consisted of twelve female participants and nine male participants. Fourteen of the participants were Caucasian and seven were African-American. Religious affiliation of participants was reported as: (a) six Baptist, (b) two none, (c) two Methodist, (d) two Non-Denominational, (e) two Catholic, (f) one Lutheran, (g) one Evangelical, (h) one Episcopalian, and (i) one Spiritual.

Interviewing Procedures

Face-to-face individual interviews were conducted two months after Hurricane Katrina. A demographics questionnaire and semi-structured interview protocol were developed and used for this investigation. The semi-structured interview protocol consisted of "grand-tour questions" (e.g., "How would you describe your view of God since Hurricane Katrina?") (Spradley, 1979) which allowed the researchers to utilize broad and general questions and identify appropriate prompts for further inquiry in a non-threatening manner. Thus, this approach provided the researchers with greater flexibility and sensibility to sensitively inquire about participants' hurricane experience and God images. For instance, given participants resource loss, if researchers felt as though a particular line of questioning could cause undue psychological distress, the researcher could modify the interview process accordingly. The approximate duration of each interview was between one to two hours. The interviews were audio-taped for the purpose of transcription and tapes were transcribed verbatim by the team researchers. Each transcript was reviewed while listening to its corresponding tape in order to ensure accuracy.

Data Analysis

Consensual Qualitative Research (CQR) ( Hill, Thompson, & Williams, 1997) was utilized to analyze participants' narratives. All data was first analyzed individually by research team members and then again in a group format over several months. Data was analyzed by grouping data into topics in order to create domains that segmented the interview data. This was followed by summarizing participants' domains into core ideas which attempted to capture the essence of what was being said in fewer words and to offer conceptual clarity. Finally, participants' core ideas were cross-analyzed to construct categories which represented common themes among participants.

Increasing Rigor and Trustworthiness

Several strategies were used to enhance the rigor and trustworthiness of the current study. These strategies included: (a) the use of low inference descriptors and participant verbatims, (b) peer review and debriefing, (c) reflexivity-practices (e.g., clarification of researcher bias), (d) use of outside auditor, (e) memos and field notes, and (f) multiple researchers (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005).

RESULTS

The various themes that emerged from the current study showed that a multifaceted and somewhat paradoxical view of God evolved after Hurricane Katrina, which may have served as a coping mechanism. The following conceptualizations of God were reported by participants: (a) Omnipresent God, (b) Omnipotent God, (c) Distant God, (d) Personal God, (e) God in Others, (f) God as Judge, (g) God of Lessons, and (h) God as Loving Father Figure. The following provides a "snapshot" into participants' God images just two months after the storm.

Omnipresent God

Participants reported believing God is a universal, supernatural, all-enveloping, divine power capable of being in all places at all times. As one participant noted, "God is an all loving, life giving force, something that's all around us ..." In particular, they reported feeling surrounded by God's presence no matter where they were, and experiencing a strengthened sense of God's presence after the hurricane. A few participants also expressed the belief that God could be found within oneself, in others, and in nature. As one participant noted, "God is everywhere. You can see him in nature, in the people driving the vans full of first-aid materials down here, and in the people serving soup in the shelters." Overall, participants viewed God as having the ability to exist everywhere and in all things simultaneously.

Omnipotent God

Participants viewed God as having strong, limitless, incomparable power. For example, one participant expressed," ... God is in control and He is just letting us know that He is still in control. He can do anything, what He feels like doing." Participants saw the force and power of Hurricane Katrina as evidence of God's infinite power. The destruction resulting from Hurricane Katrina further supported participants' view of an all-powerful God. Moreover, participants viewed God not only as omnipotent, but also as omniscient or having unlimited knowledge and understanding. One participant, however, expressed that God is not all-powerful and that people have free choice and responsibility for their actions, stating:

It's never really been, the all powerful wizard, you know, we've been given the tools, you know, and it's up to us what we want to do with them ... I made what I am as a person ... that's the way I view God.

Despite this participant's belief in the superiority of human free will, the majority of participants viewed God as a divine being with unlimited power, knowledge, control, and authority.

Distant God

Though participants often described an omnipresent view of God, they also described times when God felt physically, emotionally, and spiritually distant. Participants reported being at various spiritual proximities to God following the hurricane. They described intense periods of questioning marked by attempts to understand or make meaning of their hurricane experience. During these intense periods of distress, many participants felt as though God had temporarily withdrawn from them saying, "I don't feel like I heard Him [God] much lately." Likewise, another participant echoed, "I don't see Him [God] as being that personal ... I pray and have life-changing experiences ... but I still feel a big difference between God and myself. I do feel distant from Him."

Personal God

Despite periods when God felt distant, participants described having some type of perceived connection or bond with God through their hurricane experience. Participants stated they believed God was accessible to them and provided them with the strength they needed to endure both the onset and aftermath of Hurricane Katrina. They reported performing various rituals (e.g., prayer, yoga, quoting sacred readings), which they thought allowed them to better connect with God. One participant reported, "God is in here [pointing to the chest], he isn't out there somewhere, he's right in here." Another participant stated, "When I think of God ... is it the guy with the beard, the woman with red hair? That doesn't matter. It is the knowing, the feeling that he or she is always there."

God in Others

Participants reported seeing God in other people--friends, neighbors, and those who came down to the hurricane-stricken area to volunteer. They reported viewing God as providing for their physical and spiritual needs through the kindness and compassion of other people. As one participant noted, "... but if there is a higher power, they are embodied in people. I suddenly realized just how many friends, not just acquaintances I work with, but people that really do care." Several participants reported seeing the characteristics of God in even unknown persons who came to render aid. As one participant stated, "Total strangers helping total strangers. I was so moved by that, reaffirmed. Good Christians reaching out to do good things for people regardless of labels; that was refreshing ..." On the whole, participants reported seeing God in the philanthropic actions of others.

God as Judge

Participants viewed God as a supreme authority figure who conditionally rewarded or reprimanded individuals' actions through Hurricane Katrina. Even though many participants suffered significant loss (e.g., loss of a loved one or loss of financial resources) from Hurricane Katrina, none viewed themselves as being punished by God. Rather, participants viewed the hurricane as God's punishment for the "sinful" and "immoral acts" (e.g., gambling) of others. For example, one participant stated:

No sin should go unpunished. I would always say that. Even with the casinos. It's been 12 years since these casinos have been built; all you see is the wicked prospering. Then, all of a sudden this happens ... God does things in his own time. That let me know that God means what he says: 'No sin is going to go unpunished.' It may not be tomorrow, but you are going to reap what you sow ... so, God has shown his word to be true.

These participants viewed God as a judge who used Hurricane Katrina as a punishment to help correct the perceived wrong doing of others.

God of Lessons

Participants believed that God had a purpose for Hurricane Katrina, that there was knowledge to be gained and lessons to be learned from the storm. Participants viewed God as a masterful planner who sought to use Hurricane Katrina to communicate profound truths. One participant noted, "It was God and his plan, so you just have to take it like it is ... it's quite all right. He won't let nothing happen to you. Sometimes it's his plan and it happens for a reason." Moreover, participants believed God had used the hurricane to encourage people to"... be thankful for what is really important in life," or to send a "wakeup call." The following is an example of a lesson one participant thought God was trying to teach people through Hurricane Katrina:

And suddenly all the little boundaries are down, and there were people and neighbors trusting and loving, and caring, wonderful folks, God, why didn't I take this time before? I know the answer--because we were all involved in our own little worlds, and we didn't take time for each other ... it's nice to have neighbors instead of acquaintances living next door; they are good people and that's reassuring to me.

Participants stated that God had taught them through their Hurricane Katrina experiences to value life, remember the fragility of life, and cherish the people around them.

God as Loving Father Figure

God was viewed by participants as a loving, caring paternal figure. Though this finding parallels the Personal God theme, the belief that God was a male being and father figure addressed a different conceptual layer to the way most participants' viewed God. They reported feeling like God had protected them from more severe loss and that God continued to care for their physical and spiritual needs, "Hurricane Katrina has strengthened my faith, my spirituality, it's really solidified my belief that God takes care of me, that through tragedy something beautiful can arise ..." One participant stated, "I think He [God] puts us here on this earth and He's our father. I love him and I make sure my children feel the same way regardless what happens, I mean life is a circle of love." Participants believed that God showed great compassion and love to them throughout their hurricane experience, and that God treated them as a loving father figure would.

DISCUSSION

Research has shown that individuals' view of God may be directly linked to how they perceive and cope with events in life (Nooney & Woodrum, 2002; Pargament, Smith, Koenig, & Perez, 1999). Participants in the current study reported that they held an omnipresent view of God following Hurricane Katrina. This sense of God being more tangible, and found within one's self, others, and nature may have been a coping response employed by participants in order to gain a greater sense of security and comfort in the aftermath of the storm. These findings appear to be consistent with the literature regarding God's presence, where it has been postulated by several researchers that God may function as an attachment figure (e.g., Kaufman, 1981; Kirkpatrick, 1995, Kirkpatrick, 1998). Hill and Pargament (2003) stated that individuals who have a secure attachment to God should have lower levels of loneliness as well as feelings of greater comfort in times of distress. Furthermore, Smith, Pargament, Brant, and Oliver (2000) found that individuals who reported feeling closer to God displayed greater psychological adjustment in traumatic or stressful situations, such as natural disasters.

Even though participants in the current study viewed God's presence as universal and surrounding, they also felt that God was distant, at least temporarily, during periods of extreme distress. The idea that God has abandoned one during a traumatic event is thought to be a normal and common response following a disaster (Koenig, 2006). According to Wilson and Moran (1998), an individual who experiences a traumatic event may come to a realization that bad things are going to happen in spite of having a strong faith and belief system. Wilson and Moran (1998) go on to state that once this belief system is violated the individual may feel isolated, betrayed, and thus abandoned by God. Additionally, Shah, Snow, and Kunik (2001) found that Alzheimer's caregivers who reported feeling distant from God also reported higher levels of depression as well as greater feelings of burden associated with their care giving role. The feelings of distance from God, experienced by participants in the current study, appear to follow such patterns (e.g., Wilson & Moran, 1998).

Many of the participants described intense periods of questioning, as if their beliefs were being challenged, as well as attempts to understand or make meaning of their Hurricane Katrina experience. It was during these periods of attempting to understand and make meaning of the hurricane that several of the participants reported feeling as if God had temporarily removed himself. Therefore, the dissonance between participants' beliefs systems and the reality of the disaster may have led participants to feel as if God had "let them down" and was absent during this time of need.

Individuals holding a belief that no one is in control may be at risk for higher levels of anxiety and distress when experiencing a disaster or traumatic life event (Koenig, 2006). Lifton and Olson (1976) found that through attributing control of natural disasters to God or a higher power, survivors were able to find solace in the midst of such a traumatic event. Cole (2005) found that cancer patients who gave control over their illness to God and displayed positive religious coping exhibited less depression and severity of pain. Similar to these findings, some participants in the current study assigned total power and control to God. Participants viewed the severity and strength of Hurricane Katrina as a display of God's power. One participant even stated that the hurricane was God's way of letting people know that God is still in control. In many instances when there is nothing that an individual can do to control or change a situation, that person may turn control over to God or a higher power in order to reduce the anxiety that is caused by a lack of control (Koenig, 2006). Wong-McDonald and Gorsuch (2000) found that actively surrendering one's will to God was associated with a spiritual well-being. Thus, by acknowledging and attributing the storm to God's power following Hurricane Katrina, participants in the current study may have been trying to reduce anxiety by surrendering control of the disaster to God.

Participants in the current study viewed God as a loving father figure, who provided protection and care for their spiritual, emotional, and physical well being throughout their Hurricane Katrina experience. Although the empirical literature does not directly address the issue of God being viewed as a father figure, many of the attributes that participants in the current study attributed to a father like God are explored, such as being a protector, comforter, and loving. Hood et al. (1996) stated that individuals usually hold a loving and powerful conception of God. In times of trauma or difficult life situations, individuals may view God as a guardian providing protection from harm. For instance, in a study exploring the reasons and justifications of women infected with HIV/AIDS for considering pregnancy, Siegel and Schrimshaw (2001) found that participants reported having faith that God would protect the child from receiving HIV/AIDS as a factor in their decision making process. Additionally, Gillum, Sullivan, and Bybee (2006) interviewed 151 women survivors of domestic abuse regarding the importance of spirituality in the coping and healing process. Out of the 151 women interviewed, 97% stated that God was a source of strength and comfort throughout their traumatic experience. The participants in the current study appear to have interpreted their surviving the storm as an act from a loving and caring God, who acts like a father protecting his children. Attributing father-like qualities to God may have assisted participants in making more meaningful conceptualizations of their survival, as opposed to having survived due to "luck" or chance.

Attempting to determine the reason for or meaning behind a traumatic situation may be a display of positive coping among individuals experiencing such an event. Participants in the current study believed that God had a reason for allowing Hurricane Katrina, andthat there was a meaning or lesson to be learned from the storm. Koenig (2006) stated that throughout history, religion has enabled individuals to rise above suffering by assigning meaning to distressing events. In a study exploring the religious and non-religious appraisals of caregivers tending to terminally ill patients, Mickley, Pargament, Brant, and Hipp (1998) found that caregivers who viewed their situation as part of God's plan or sought understanding from God regarding their situation reported more positive outcomes when compared with caregivers who did not. Participants' responses in the current study appear to support the literature in that participants were attributing the storm to God's plan, and as part of God's plan, there was a lesson behind the storm. Thus, it may be that survivors of disasters, such as Hurricane Katrina, find comfort in the belief that there is knowledge to be taken away from the disaster or traumatic event, that it was not just a purposeless act.

Similar to the belief that God was attempting to teach participants a lesson through Hurricane Katrina, participants also reported that they saw God as a judge, and viewed Hurricane Katrina as punishment for people's transgressions. Some studies have shown that an image of God as punitive may be harmful and associated with psychological distress (e.g., Eurelings-Bontekoe, Van Steeg, & Verschuur, 2005). However, the participants in the current study did not seem to hold this internalizing view, rather they placed blame on external factors or others, such as the casinos or people they perceived as immoral. None of these participants reported that they were to blame for the punishment of God sent via the hurricane. The internalizing view, as discussed by Eurelings-Bontekoe et al. (2005), may be associated with negative coping, but the participants in the current study appeared to be utilizing the belief of God as a judge as a positive coping strategy. Instead of placing blame on themselves, these participants seemed to be attempting to make meaning of the hurricane by attributing its cause to the wrongdoings of others. Hood et al. (1996) have suggested that without meaning people may have a difficult time coping with the problems of life. The authors further stated that by attempting to comprehend one's life and make meaning of the world, individuals may be better able to cope and adjust more effectively as situations arise. Furthermore, Parry and Chesler (2005) found that meaning-making attributed to greater long-term psychosocial well-being in childhood cancer survivors. Such responses from the participants in this study seem to suggest that viewing God as a judge, and the disaster as his judgment, may function as a positive coping mechanism if the judgment is externalized to others and not internalized by the survivor.

Participants stated that they felt God was accessible to them and provided them with strength to endure the effects of Hurricane Katrina. Researchers have shown that individuals who report having a relationship with God report lower levels of loneliness (e.g., Kirkpatrick, Shillito, & Kellas, 1999). Participants' belief that God was there for them through their Hurricane Katrina experience may have provided a sense of companionship which protected them from feelings of loneliness and abandonment. Furthermore, in a qualitative study exploring the spiritual factors in long-term adjustment among breast cancer survivors. Gall and Cornblat (2002) found that most of the participants reported that they turned to God for support and direction, and felt God as being intensely present in their life. Additionally, these women perceived God as supportive, loving, forgiving, and giver of life. Perceiving a personal relationship with God gave the participants in the current study a greater sense of comfort, as well as control, feeling as though they could have access to God whenever they needed. Therefore, individuals who view their relationship with God as personal and close may receive greater strength and comfort, allowing them to more effectively endure a traumatic event.

CONCLUSION

It is hoped that the information garnered from this study may provide further insight into how God images are used by survivors of natural disasters. Although several steps were taken to enhance the rigor of this study (e.g., using an outside auditor), there were still several limitations that should be noted. Examples of limitations inherent to this investigation include possible participant social desirability (e.g., desire to appear religious), geographic location of participants (e.g., experiences may differ from survivors in New Orleans, Louisiana), and interviews were only conducted at one point in time after Hurricane Katrina (e.g., experiences and God images may have been different at different periods). Likewise, the impact of participants' theological backgrounds on their God images following the storm was not explored in-depth. Also, the list of God images articulated by participants largely reflects more Western religious conceptualizations (e.g., Judeo-Christian), and therefore captured very few perspectives more commonly associated with Eastern religious traditions (e.g., Buddhist) that can be found in the literature. Thus, due to these limitations, the experiences of Hurricane Katrina survivors, as told by the participants in the current study, may not be representative of all hurricane survivors.

There appear to be several implications that arise out of the current study, which may foster further exploration regarding God image and coping mechanisms following a disaster or traumatic event. For instance, God image may function as a positive resource and a coping mechanism for individuals who have experienced a large-scale regional disaster or traumatic event. Additionally, social support may be bolstered for victims of disasters through relating to others who have similar God images. As part of coping with traumatic events, people often try to explain or assign meaning to the event. Further exploration into the use of God image to explain or attribute causation to a disaster or traumatic event may provide insight into the function of this coping mechanism. The current study may also have practice implications for the delivery of psychological services to those affected by disasters. For example, survivors' God image could potentially be used as a metaphor in counseling as a way to engaging the client in talking about the disaster. God images may also be an effective tool in assessing the appropriateness for incorporating spiritual resources into counseling and psychotherapy following a disaster.

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AUTHORS

ATEN, JAMIE, D. Address: 118 College Drive #5025, Hattiesburg, MS 39406-0001. Title: Assistant Professor, The University of Southern Mississippi, Department of Psychology, Degree: Ph.D Specialization: Primary research and teaching interests include spirituality, supervision, rural psychology, and qualitative methods.

MOORE, MICHAEL P. Address: The University of Southern Mississippi, 118 College Drive #5025, Hattiesburg, MS 39406. Title: Graduate Student. Degree: M. A., The University of Southern Mississippi. Specializations: Anger, aggression, and driving behavior.

DENNEY, RYAN M. Address: The University of Southern Mississippi, 118 College Drive #5025, Hattiesburg, MS 39406. Title: Doctoral Candidate. Degree: M.A. The University of Southern Mississippi. Specializations: Spirituality, posttraumatic growth.

BAYNE, TANIA G. Address: Mental Health Association of Mississippi, Center for Community Resilience, 3825 Versailles Court, Ocean Springs, MS 39564. Title: Resilience Counselor. Degree: M.S., The University of Southern Mississippi. Specializations: Mindfulness-based therapies, yoga, trauma, and addictions.

STAGG, AMY M. Address: 7833 Lakeside Court, Terre Haute, IN 47802. Title: Doctoral Candidate in Counseling Psychology, Indiana State University. Degree: Masters of Science, The University of Southern Mississippi. Specializations: ADHD.

OWENS, STACEY. Address: The University of Southern Mississippi, 118 College Drive #5025, Hattiesburg, MS 39406. Title: Community Mental Health Counselor. Degree: M.S., The University of Southern Mississippi. Specializations: Spirituality.

DANIEL, SAMANTHAM. Address: The University of Memphis, 100 Ball Hall, College of Education, Memphis, TN 38152. Title: Doctoral Candidate. Degree: MS The University of Southern Mississippi. Specializations: Gender studies, male body image, sexuality, and statistics.

BOSWELLI, STEFANIE. Address: University of the Incarnate Word, Department of Psychology, 4301 Broadway, San Antonio, TX 78209. Title: Assistant Professor of Psychology. Degree: Ph.D. The University of Southern Mississippi. Specializations: Grief and bereavement and spirituality

SCHENCK, JANE E. Address: The University of Southern Mississippi, 118 College Drive #5025, Hattiesburg, MS 39406. Title: Doctoral Student in Counseling Psychology. Degree: M. Div., New Orleans Baptist Theological Seminary. Specializations: Resiliency, spirituality, and health psychology.

ADAMS, JASON. Address: The University of Southern Mississippi, 118 College Drive #5025, Hattiesburg, MS 39406. Title: Community Mental Health Counselor. Degree: M.S. The University of Southern Mississippi. Specializations: spirituality

JONES, CHARISSA L. Address: 4124 West 4th St Apt 1907, Hattiesburg, MS 39401. Title: Licensed Professional Counselor. Degree: MS, The University of Southern Mississippi. Specializations: Addiction and eating disorders.

Please address correspondence to Jamie D. Aten, PhD, University of Southern Mississippi, 118 College Drive #5025, Hattiesburg, MS 39406-0001. Email: Janie.Aten@usm.edu.

JAMIE D. ATEN, MICHAEL MOORE, RYAN M. DENNEY, TANIA BAYNE, AMY STAGG, STACY OWENS, SAMANTHA DANIELS, STEFANIE BOSWELL, JANE SCHENCK, JASON ADAMS, & CHARISSA JONES

The University of Southern Mississippi