The spiritual self: toward a conceptualization of spiritual identity development.
Smith, Timothy B.
Both researchers and practitioners have demonstrated considerable
interest in identity development, and positive personal identities have
been associated with numerous positive mental health outcomes. However,
major theories of identity development have neglected the salience of
spiritual identity, even though the early work of William James placed
this as a central component of personality. This article reviews four
major theories of identity development (cognitive, psychodynamic,
systems, and narrative) and suggests spiritual identity parallels to
these theories. A tentative model of spiritual identity development is
presented. Implications for therapy and future research concerning
spiritual identity development are discussed.
**********
That they should seek the Lord, if haply they might feel after him,
and find him, though he be not far from every one of us: "For in
him we live, and move, and have our being"; as certain also as your
own poets have said, "For we are also his offspring (Acts
17:27-28).
Professional counselors and psychotherapists are demonstrating
increasing interest in the spiritual lives of their clients, recognizing
the importance of addressing spirituality in therapy (Miller, 1999;
Richards & Bergin, 1997; Schwartz, 1999). Furthermore, research
indicates that mental health may be promoted through spiritual means
(Bergin, 1991; Miller & Martin, 1988; Richards & Potts, 1995;
Shafranske, 1996). In fact, some research suggests that certain clients
may be effectively treated only when therapists respond to their
spiritual and religious issues (Bergin, 1991; Kelly, 1995; Shafranske,
1996; Worthington, Kurusu, McCullough, & Sanders, 1996).
Recently, Millet (1999) issued a challenge to formulate a theory of
spiritual identity development that particularly addresses how spiritual
identity may be encouraged within therapy. This sense of spiritual
identity, an individual's belief that she or he is an eternal being
and connected to God, is an aspect of human spirituality thought to be
effective in protecting and restoring psychological health (Richards
& Bergin, 1997). The supposed power of spiritual identity to promote
resiliency and change in individuals corresponds with research
indicating that similar benefits are derived from a strong sense of
personal identity.
Previous research has shown that the health-promoting and
health-restoring effects of a strong sense of identity are evident
throughout the lifespan. In adolescents, healthy identity development
may protect against depression (Koteskey, Little, & Matthews, 1991)
and encourage optimism and selfesteem (Roberts et al., 1999).
Psychological wellbeing is also linked to healthy identity in adults
(Pulkkinen & Roenkae, 1994). Elderly individuals with healthy
identities are able to maintain a sense of continuity in their lives and
to deal effectively with age-related changes (Brandstadter & Greve,
1994). According to Erikson (1950), successful identity development
enables individuals to proceed more effectively with subsequent life
tasks of intimacy, generativity, and integrity. Developing a sense of
spiritual identity may also contribute to such desirable effects for
individuals throughout their development. Through this article, we hope
to respond to Miller's (1999) challenge by suggesting a spiritual
identity deve lopment model and by providing implications of the model
for psychotherapy and for future research.
THEORIES OF IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT: THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SPIRITUAL
SELF
William James (1890, 1902, 1910/1968) provided an early yet
enduring conceptualization of identity development. He posited that the
study of one's identity involves considering two aspects of the
self: the "I" and the "me." An individual's
"I" functions consciously and objectively to create and
connect the various "me's" and to maintain a sense of
continuity of self across time. The types of "me" created by
the "I" include the "material me," the "social
me," and the "spiritual me." The "material me"
consists of one's body, clothes, family, home, and collections. The
"social me" involves how one is seen and responded to by
others. The "spiritual me" is described as one's inner
thinking and feeling self. James (1910/1968) referred to this
"spiritual me" as "the true, the intimate, the ultimate,
the permanent me which I seek" (p. 46). The spiritual me, or
spiritual self, is further described as the "core" and
"sanctuary of our life" (p. 43). It is the highest level of
self-organization, more advanced than the "m aterial me" and
the "social me." Identity development, according to James,
occurs as the "I" is driven to construct the multifarious "me's" and to organize these various selves around the
central spiritual self.
Though James (1890) argued that experiencing the "spiritual
me" may be understood as strictly psychological and physiological
processes, he acknowledged the plausibility of more metaphysical explanations provided through the concept of the soul. Further, James
submitted that understanding the nature of the knowing, creating, and
connecting "I" may also require the idea of a soul. Others
have argued that recognizing the reality of the soul is necessary to
understand how the Jamesian "I" functions (Moreland, 1998).
Since the time that James proposed this early model of the self,
identity development theorists have extended and modified his work;
nevertheless, they have largely abandoned his emphasis on spiritual
self-conceptualization. These later theorists have, therefore,
overlooked the concept of the soul that James conceded may explain both
the central, felt component of identity and the unifying agent of
identity (Coon, 2000). Nevertheless, spiritual identity parallels may be
drawn from post-Jamesian theories.
Major theories of identity development since James include
psychodynamic, cognitive, systems, and narrative theories. Although
other theories could also be addressed, this paper will focus on these
four. With each theory, we will identify how the Jamesian "I"
functions, what drives the "I," what "me's" are
created, what developmental sequence is followed, and how healthy
identity is achieved. We will then extend these theories to propose
spiritual identity development parallels. Based on these parallels, we
present a model of spiritual identity development informed by a theistic perspective of identity (Richards & Bergin, 1997) that explicitly
affirms the reality of the soul.
Psychodynamic Theories
Psychodynamic theories of identity development emphasize the
process of individuals seeking to connect to and separate from others
(Erikson, 1950; Mahler, Pine, & Bergman, 1975). These theorists
emphasize the Jamesian "social me," focusing on identity
development through relationships, and de-emphasize the Jamesian
"I," suggesting a less conscious, more symbolic development of
the self. This symbolic self develops through interactions with
significant others, particularly interactions early in one's life.
Children gain a sense of self as their significant others, their
"self-objects," selectively confirm, or mirror, the images of
themselves they display and communicate (Kohut, 1977).
From a psychodynamic perspective, the process of establishing an
identity involves an individual sequencing through a period of being
unaware of the self, to a period of recognizing and forming the self
through interactions with primary others, and, finally, to a period of
clearly perceiving the self in relation to others. Development is
prompted by a period of intrapsychic crisis that challenges an aspect of
identity or brings unconscious material into awareness (Erikson, 1950;
Mahler, Pine, & Bergman, 1975). Healthy identity is achieved,
according to these theorists, as individuals gain a sense of
self-constancy and other-constancy (Erikson, 1950; Mahler, Pine, &
Bergman, 1975), recognize and accept the strengths and weaknesses in
themselves as well as in others (Kohut, 1977), and selectively
internalize and reject beliefs and values (Erikson, 1950).
An implication of psychodynamic theories for spiritual identity
development is that individuals may develop a sense of their spiritual
selves in connection and continuity with God. Extending insights from
psychodynamic theories, the Jamesian "I" may not function
consciously; rather the "me" (Jamesian "spiritual
me") representations may be derived implicitly through interactions
with spiritual objects. According to Erikson (1996), the objects that
shape the spiritual self include one's parents and one's God.
Erikson purported that the parent-child relationship is
"transferred" to a God-spiritual child relationship. He did
not, however, explain how this occurs. Nevertheless, such a
"transfer" has been suggested by Rizzuto (1979), who posited
that individuals create their image of God from projected images of
primary objects such as parents. If such projection occurs with
one's conception of God's image, then a similar projection may
take place with one's perceived relationship with God and,
therefore, one's spi ritual identity.
Cognitive Theories
Cognitive theorists conceptualize identity development as a
meaning-making process. Like psychodynamic theorists, they emphasize the
Jamesian "social me" and describe an individual's
Jamesian "I" as organizing into meaningful self-schemas
one's history of behaviors and input from others (Markus, 1977);
differentiating the self from others, specifically the perspectives of
others (Kegan, 1979); and creating ideal "possible selves"
(Markus & Nurius, 1986). The "I" is propelled to maintain
equilibrium as it makes meaning of the outside world (Kegan, 1979) and
of one's experiences (Markus, 1977), yet maintains a sense of
organization, a sense of self.
Individuals' cognitive identities develop through sequential
phases of lacking the ability to reflect upon and see the self
objectively, to progressively gaining the ability to objectively
perceive and direct the self, and, finally, to integrating an objective
sense of the self and others. Development is prompted by conflicts
stemming from schemas that are incongruent with the environment (Kegan,
1979). Healthy identity, according to the cognitive perspective, is
attained by gaining greater objectivity in reflecting upon oneself and
others (Kegan, 1979) and by being able to understand and direct
one's life according to self-schemas (Markus, 1977; Markus &
Nurius, 1986).
Cognitive developmental theorists (Kegan, 1979; Markus, 1977)
suggest that one's Jamesian "I" makes meaning of
one's world, one's relation to the world, and one's
experiences, giving coherence to the self. Extending insights from these
theories would imply that an individual's "I" may also
need to create a spiritual self, while developing spiritual schemas to
organize and give meaning to the world beyond, to her or his relation to
the world beyond (i.e., God), and to her or his spiritual experiences.
This proposed process is illustrated by research which suggests that
spiritual schemas enable individuals to make sense of traumatic
experiences outside their control, allowing them to separate themselves
from these events by turning and connecting to God (Bjorck, 1995). From
his research with children, Elkind (1997) posited that developing
individuals have a "cognitive need capacity" to know that life
has permanence, specifically that their lives have permanence (i.e.,
that they have eternal identities). He furt her proposed that religion
provides answers to the question of permanence as well as fills
subsequent "need capacities": needs to symbolize, to relate
to, and to understand God. An individual's "I" may draw
upon religious beliefs and spiritual experiences to satisfy these
"need capacities," creating a "possible" eternal
spiritual self-schema and a spiritual self-schema of one s separateness
from and connection to God.
Systems Theories
Systems theorists (e.g., Bowen, 1978) assert that an
individual's interpersonal contexts, one's systems, influence
the developing self, specifically the developing Jamesian social self.
Bowen (1978) purported that one's identity matures by "working
out a 'self' in ones own family of origin" (p. 514).
Bowen's Jamesian "I" separates, differentiates, and
defines the self with reference to a system such as one's family.
This self-system differentiation process is driven by the
individual's desire to gain autonomy and distance from the
emotional "entanglements" of one's system. The process is
discouraged by systems that attempt to prevent such differentiation by
involving the individual in emotionally enmeshing "triangles"
with other members of the system (e.g., "undifferentiated ego
mass" systems).
To develop a sense of identity, according to a systems perspective,
an individual sequences from a phase of being emotionally fused or
entangled with a system, to a phase of progressively detaching or
disentangling from a system, and, finally, to a phase of sensing
one's own distinctiveness and direct relatedness to others.
Identity progression from fusion to detachment is prompted by stresses
that challenge existing relationships within the system (Bowen, 1978).
An individual who achieves a healthy sense of self, according to
Bowen's model, is able to maintain objectivity within the system,
to resist being easily influenced by other members of the system, and to
establish healthy, intimate "person-to-person" relationships
with others.
Within a systems theory framework (Bowen, 1978), the Jamesian
"I" develops objectivity, or emotional distance, from systems
such as one's family system or one's religious system,
enabling an individual to achieve this healthy differentiation by
turning and connecting to God (Richardson, 1987). This concept is
supported by intrinsic/extrinsic religiosity research (Richards &
Bergin, 1997), which suggests that both spiritual health and mental
health are encouraged by personal, genuine religious experience and are
compromised by social, inauthentic religious practice. Perhaps the same
connectedness-separateness balance between individuals and their systems
is similarly healthy when applied to the individual's relationship
with God. If individuals can connect to God while maintaining an
objective sense of themselves, they may be able to relate more
intimately to God and create a "person-to-God" relationship.
Narrative Theories
Narrative theories of identity development (McAdams, 1993, 1996)
integrate psychodynamic, cognitive, and systems theories into a more
complete conceptualization of the self. Narrative theorists propose that
one's Jamesian "I" creates meaningful and coherent life
stories, or self-stories. These self-stories allow individuals to see
their lives as having continuity in time and connection to others and to
ideas. The narrative "I" is motivated cognitively to find
purpose and unity in life. Other "I" influences include
one's early interactions (e.g., psychodynamic influences) and
one's systems. The self-stories that are created include various
self-symbols, self-schemas, and self-other-scripts.
Development of narrative identity has been suggested as following a
sequence of "eras" (McAdams, 1996) in which a developing
individual first experiences life without forming a self-story
("prenarrative era"), then creates a self-story from life
experiences ("narrative era"), and finally reviews the created
self-story for a sense of meaning and completeness ("postnarrative
era"). Development is prompted by a period of crisis in which a
deficit in a current identity story is modified to provide a more
meaningful and coherent narrative that unifies life experiences. From
the perspective of narrative theory, individuals achieve a healthy
identity as they develop a coherent life story that integrates their
various self-stories into a meaningful whole (McAdams, 1993,1996).
Just as narrative theory of identity development (McAdams, 1993,
1996) provides a useful model for integrating the other theories, the
narrative perspective encapsulates the spiritual self within spiritual
self-stories that include symbols, schemas, and scripts. Robertson
(1990) proposed that individuals achieve spiritual identities by linking
their life stories to the narratives of a religious community system and
to their ongoing stories of personal revelation from God. These
spiritual narratives may give individuals a sense of life continuity
through eternal life stories and of connection to God through spiritual
self-to-God story themes. One's sense of a storied spiritual self
may develop through interactions with God that may be partially
unconscious and symbolic and partially conscious and schematized.
Summary of Insights from Psychological Theories
Although William James (1890, 1902, 1910/1968) proposed that
spirituality is central to an individual's identity development,
later theories of identity development have ignored or denied spiritual
aspects of identity. Having reviewed four of these theories, we have
extracted several common themes in an attempt to formulate the basis of
a tentative theory that (re)affirms the construct of spiritual identity
development. General insights synthesized across these theories include
the following: (a) Individuals seek a sense of self that is connected to
and separate from others with whom they interact; (b) individuals seek a
sense of continuity and constancy in how they view themselves; and (c)
individuals seek to organize and understand themselves in relation to
others and to their experiences. These assumptions influence our
conceptualization of spiritual identity development as a process that
involves individuals' connection to and separation from God,
perceptions of consistent spiritual themes across time and across
situations, and spiritual experiences that provide meaning and purpose
in their lives.
Moreover, each of the theories reviewed above specifies a general
developmental sequence of identity development. Synthesis of these
theories reveals at least four unique phases or stages of identity
development: (a) a stage of being unaware of one's self as distinct
yet connected to others; (b) a stage of learning, crisis, or conflict
that challenges unawareness of the self; (c) a stage of progressively
experiencing and creating the self in relation to the world and to
others; and, finally, (d) a stage of integrating experiences into a
clear sense of self and others that provides meaning, coherence, and
continuity. We draw upon this general developmental sequence in
formulating our model of spiritual identity development.
A THEISTIC PERSPECTIVE OF SPIRITUAL IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT
In the process of gleaning insights for spiritual identity
development from these four post-Jamesian psychological theories, we
openly acknowledge making certain assumptions about spirituality, some
of which were made explicit by James (1890, 1910/1968) in his discussion
of the soul. Specifically, we assume the reality of the soul; humans are
spiritual beings. Our conceptualization of spiritual identity is
therefore similar to the theistic model of human development proposed by
Richards and Bergin (1997). Grounded in the teachings of predominant
world religious and spiritual traditions, Richards and Bergin's
theistic model makes explicit assumptions about spiritual reality: God
exists, human beings are children of God, humans possess temporal
physical bodies and eternal spirits, humans are able to communicate with
God through spiritual means, and humans are able to recognize/remember
their true nature as eternal beings of divine potential. These
assumptions clearly distinguish spiritual identity development f rom
other forms of social or emotional development, and they are central to
the synthesis of perspectives we propose here. Put simply, we affirm
that without faith that God exists and that humans are in fact spiritual
in nature, the concept of spiritual identity has little merit, being
merely a different aspect of social identity. The validity of a model of
spiritual identity development therefore depends on the veracity of
theistic assumptions, which are ignored or denied by other
conceptualizations of identity.
A Model for Spiritual Identity Development
By integrating the insights from psychological theories with the
theistic assumptions articulated by Richards and Bergin (1997), a model
for spiritual identity can be formulated. This proposed model is based
on the reality that we are the "offspring of God" (Acts
17:28), specifically that God is the "Father of [our] spirits"
(Hebrews 12:9). It is through our spirits that God communicates with us
(Romans 8:16). Others have noted that in addition to providing spiritual
receptivity, our spirits or souls enable other faculties such as
thinking and feeling (Moreland, 1998). Through such spiritual faculties,
individuals can both experience their developing spiritual lives and
reflect upon this development to construct a sense of spiritual
identity.
The part of us that experiences spiritual development may be
referred to as the Jamesian "spiritual me," whereas the part
of us that reflects upon and organizes such experiences into a sense of
spiritual identity may be referred to as the Jamesian "I." The
separation here into the experiencing self and the constructing self is
done for explanatory purposes rather than to suggest that these are
distinct parts of the self. We, like others (Sauvayre, 1995), contend
that the self is an integration of the experiencing object and the
constructing subject; the spiritual self develops through the interplay of spiritual experiences and spiritual self-constructions.
In our proposed model, individuals develop a sense of spiritual
self in relation to God by interacting with God and by recognizing
divine within themselves and others. Such interactions and recognitions
can be termed "spiritual experiences" or, as expressed by
James (1902), "mystical experiences."
We assert that individuals are intrinsically motivated to
"feel after" (Acts 17:27) a relationship with God. Recognition
of spiritual experiences increases that motivation. Moreover, by
reflecting upon spiritual experiences from the past and by projecting
such experiences into the future through faith, individuals are able to
feel continuity and constancy of their spiritual selves as eternal
beings. Internalization of spiritual experiences allows individuals to
construct a sense of a spiritual self in relation to the world in which
they live and to the world beyond.
Stages of spiritual identity development. A developmental sequence
for this model of spiritual identity development can be proposed by
integrating insights from the discussed identity theories with theistic
insights. The first phase or stage of the developing spiritual self
would be Pre-awareness of the self as an eternal being in relation to
God. At this point, individuals do not consciously regard themselves in
spiritual terms. Either they have not had experiences identified as
spiritual or else the salience of past spiritual experiences has been
minimized or forgotten.
The second stage usually involves a period of learning, crisis, or
conflict that prompts an Awakening of awareness of the self in relation
to God. Although a single major crisis may raise awareness in and of
itself, more often the spiritual learning or conflict will be generated
by a series of several events recognized as related that are of
sufficient intensity to prompt awareness. Individuals at this stage
begin to recognize events or interactions in spiritual terms. Although
this recognition may at times be emotionally intense, the quality of
spiritual awareness will tend to be inconsistent, fragmented, or
specific to the crisis/situation at hand (e.g., a child only thinking of
God when attending church or as an adult rarely thinking of God except
when blaming Him for the premature death of a spouse).
The third stage would entail Recognition and recollection of other
spiritual experiences, such that the initial awareness obtained in the
previous stage is progressively generalized to an awareness of spiritual
experiences in other settings and interactions. Individuals at this
stage begin to develop a consistent spiritual identity by having more
spiritual experiences and by reflecting upon similar experiences in the
past. Thus, spiritual themes begin to emerge for the individual,
although these themes may be predominantly cognitive or emotional (e.g.,
individuals who accept the doctrine of a particular religious sect or
who on occasions feel moved by spiritual messages but who otherwise
primarily see themselves in terms of their material/social attributes
and experiences).
The fourth, and final, stage of this model involves an Integration
of spiritual experiences with self-concept. Spiritual experiences
typically seen in previous stages as external to the person become
internalized, simultaneous with the development of spiritual
relationships, person to person and person to God. Individuals at this
stage recognize their own spiritual nature, and they perceive and
interact with the world accordingly. More accurately stated, individuals
at this stage begin to interact and relate with God and with others in
spiritual terms, such that they come to see themselves as spiritual
beings through the consistent interaction. Themes of spirituality are
woven throughout many aspects of their life because they recognize
spiritual experiences across many settings. They spontaneously take in
and seek out spiritual experiences because doing so has become for them
a way of life.
Individual differences in spiritual identity. In proposing this
model of spiritual identity development, we recognize that individuals
vary greatly in how they describe spirituality and how they experience a
relationship with God. The content of a spiritual identity is highly
idiosyncratic, depending largely on the religious orientation,
personality characteristics, and previous spiritual experiences of the
person.
This idiosyncrasy of spiritual identity should not be surprising,
given that psychological identities are also fluid and highly unique
(e.g., James, 1890, 1910/1968). The psychological theories reviewed
previously have all indicated that individuals seek to understand
themselves in relation to others and to their experiences, factors which
vary dramatically from person to person. Individuals form their identity
based on their own unique history and beliefs about who they are and who
they should become over time. Paralleling this process, we suggest that
individuals will strive to develop a spiritual identity that corresponds
with what they believe God to be. The developmental sequence from
Pre-awareness to Integration will, therefore, progress in accordance
with an individual's beliefs about God or his or her God image
(e.g., Hood, 1989; Rizzuto, 1979; Stark, 2000) as they come to match
their beliefs more and more with God's true attributes. That is,
although individuals initially (Pre-awareness to Recognitio n) tend to
create themselves in the image of their God or god, which may often be
projections constructed through early interactions with primary
caregivers (e.g., Rizzuto, 1979), the entire process of spiritual
identity development is one of unlearning beliefs about God based on
interactions with others and refining more accurate images of the true
attributes of God by interacting directly with Him. Thus, although
individuals widely differ in their current perceptions of God due to
their previous experiences, our model affirms that spiritual experiences
reveal God to the individual, and the more individuals come to know God,
the more they see themselves as His children, created in His Image
(Genesis 1:26; 1 Corinthians 13:12). This assertion is developed more
below.
Psychological identity develops as individuals selectively
internalize and reject beliefs and values to more accurately match their
own experiences and circumstances (e.g., Erikson, 1950), with mental
health partially being a function of how well their identity matches
reality. A parallel process may occur with spiritual identity
development. Specifically, we suggest that spiritual identity
development will progress or digress in accordance with how accurately
an individual's God image corresponds with his or her environment
and, more importantly, with his or her own behaviors and spiritual
experiences. For example, persons who believe that God unconditionally
loves all people and aspire themselves to love others as best they can,
may, with sufficient repetition, establish a pattern of spontaneous
charitable behavior and thereby internalize a degree of their God image,
leading to positive gains in self-concept and mental health. Conversely,
persons who become highly critical of those who take advantage of the ir
kindness may find it difficult to progress past a Recognition stage of
identity because the aspired value is not internalized. In accordance
with psychological principles (e.g., Erikson, 1950; McAdams, 1996), a
person's optimal aspired identity should be (a) personally
relevant, (b) beneficial, and (c) acknowledged and reciprocated by
others. Therefore, spiritual identity will develop best when
individuals' image of God is relevant to their own lives,
benevolent and meaningful, and ultimately reciprocated through a
relationship with God. Oppositely, spiritual identity development will
be restricted to the degree that individuals perceive God as detached,
punitive, judgmental, etc., which attributes are characteristic
projections of childhood interactions with primary caregivers (Rizutto,
1979).
As indicated earlier, psychological theories also suggest that
identity progresses as some values are refined or rejected through
detachment or differentiation (e.g., Bowen, 1978; Kegan, 1979). To draw
another parallel with spiritual identity development, when a
person's God image consistently conflicts with her or his
environment or behavior, the person may refine or modify her or his God
image. For example, the person who has become critical of others could
modify the belief that God unconditionally loves all people to a belief
that God loves all people but also judges and rewards them differently
based on the talents/attributes given them. This changed belief
structure would allow the person to refrain from criticizing others by
either (a) only being kind to those the person feels deserve to be
rewarded by God, or (b) recognizing that God is the only judge and,
therefore, she or he should seek God's grace and attempt to
"turn the other cheek." Although these two modifications could
both have the effect of reducing the person's overt criticisms,
thereby increasing his or her behavioral congruence with his or her God
image, the outcomes clearly differ in terms of external standards,
principally the teachings of the Bible (Luke 6:27-35). We therefore
assert that the more accurately a person's beliefs about God
reflect God's true attributes, the more developed (consistent,
meaningful) that person's spiritual identity will be.
In sum, just as individuals' psychological identity and
well-being increase as their identity more accurately matches their own
behavior and their environment, individuals' spiritual identity
increases as their behavior and their God image match with increasing
accuracy the attributes of Deity. Conversely, conflicts between
individuals' experiences and their God image will likely lead to
either a decrease in the salience of their spiritual identity
(detachment) or else a redefinition of their God image
(differentiation).
Developmental progression over time. Each of the four psychological
theories reviewed suggest that identity develops during the course of
life beginning from birth, although the theories differ somewhat
regarding when and how individuals attain a sense of self. As suggested
from the spiritual parallels to each of the four theories, spiritual
identity development may also involve a longitudinal process that
initiates in early childhood. However, we propose that spiritual
identity development may also commence or resume in adulthood during a
"second birth" (John 3:3-4). Thus we can follow the course of
spiritual identity development from an infant's birth and/or from
an adult's rebirth.
Moreover, we propose that unlike certain aspects of psychological
development (e.g., cognitive or social), spiritual identity development
does not necessarily proceed in linear fashion after basic psychological
skills have been acquired in childhood. Although our model may indeed
fit a generally linear sequence of psychological development during
early childhood (progression from the absence of a sense of self to the
achievement of a sense of self that is integrated with the environment),
we suggest that spiritual identity is more malleable than fundamental
psychological processes. Therefore, after basic language, cognitive, and
social skills have been obtained (usually by ages 7-8), spiritual
identity development may undergo changes more accurately represented by
a double spiral than a straight line. Support for this assertion comes
from other theories specific to identity development, which recognize
idiosyncratic development patterns such as returning to previous stages
(McAdams, 1993, 1996; Steenbarger, 1 991). For example, a person not
ordinarily inclined to be spiritual might recognize and feel strongly
the presence of God during the months surrounding the birth of a child
(Awakening), but then gradually become preoccupied with material
concerns again (Pre-awareness) as continued spiritual prompts go
unheeded. Or a child raised in an environment conducive to spirituality
may by age seven already view her or himself as a child of God and have
a relationship with God established through frequent prayer independent
of parent supervision (Integration), but during adolescence have
experiences that minimize the salience of spirituality (Pre-awareness)
until a relationship with a youth pastor leads to questions about
spiritual realities (Awakening) and further consideration of the
individual's childhood spiritual experiences (Recognition). At this
point, we hope to illustrate the developmental course of the spiritual
self as suggested in our model by following the description of a
spiritual rebirth recorded in the Bible.
ILLUSTRATING THE SPIRITUAL IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT MODEL:
The Case of the Prodigal Son
The Prodigal Son is one of three parables recorded in chapter
fifteen of the Gospel of St. Luke. In each of these three parables,
Jesus likens the repentance of sinners to being "found." In
the first two parables, the Parable of the Lost Sheep and the Parable of
the Lost Piece of Silver, the "finding" is accomplished by an
outside source: the owner of the sheep and the owner of the coin. In
contrast, the Prodigal Son "came to" or "found"
himself (Luke 15:17).
What does it mean that the Prodigal "came to himself"?
Might it be that he remembered who he was, the son of a benevolent
father? Perhaps he recalled experiences of his home, his father, his
brother. Destitute and alone, the Prodigal recognized the constancy of
his relationship to his father. He yearned to be reconciled, to
reconnect to his father, and again experience the peace and joy of his
boyhood home. The lost young man viewed himself as one who was perhaps
unworthy to continue his status as son, unworthy of his earlier
relationship with his father (Luke 15:21). It was, however, the
realization of the continuity of his relationship with his father that
allowed the Prodigal to arise and go home (Luke 15:20).
As we consider the meaning of this parable, the reconciliation of a
sinner to God, we may begin to understand the process of spiritual
identity development. The Prodigal represents those who at times feel
lost in the world and disconnected from God. He may symbolize all of us.
A parallel process to the Prodigal remembering his father, recognizing
his continuing relationship with his father, and subsequently
reconciling with his father may occur with us, as prodigals, and our
Heavenly Father. Like the Prodigal, we may recall experiences of feeling
close to our Father and understanding our purpose in the world, These
memories of spiritual experiences enable us to recognize our continuing
relationship with God and our constancy as eternal beings. Our spiritual
identity is developed or recognized as we organize spiritual memories
into spiritual self-stories, This process is supported by research
linking identity development and memory (Conway & Pleydell-Pearce,
2000; Howe & Courage, 1997).
These memories from which individuals derive their spiritual
identities may be created through the processes suggested in this
review. Such means of creating spiritual memories may include
interacting with God and other children of God, learning religious
teachings, and having other spiritual experiences. A sense of spiritual
identity may be achieved by remembering and reflecting upon these
spiritual interactions, teachings, and experiences through the process
suggested in our tentative model: Pre-awareness of spiritual identity,
Awakening of spiritual awareness, Recognition and reconstruction of
fragmented spiritual memories into consistent themes, and Integration of
spiritual memories and experiences into a spiritual identity with
concomitant changes in behavior. These proposed spiritual identity
stages correspond to those suggested in other theories that describe
stage sequences for types of identity that tend to emerge during
adulthood (Fassinger & Miller, 1996; Parham, 1989; Phinney, 1990;
Troiden, 1989) . They are similar to the type of development we suggest
can be found in the emergence of spiritual identity during a period of
rebirth.
The Pre-awareness stage can be represented with the Prodigal's
journey away from his father. The Prodigal traveled to a "far
country," suggesting a deliberate attempt to separate himself from
and forget his father. A similar process may occur with prodigals
estranging themselves from a Heavenly Father. Such literal and symbolic
distance, as well as worldly distraction (e.g., "riotous
living"), may over time dim or erase memories of these
relationships from a prodigal's awareness.
Like the Prodigal, those estranged from God may have experiences
that promote reflection and recognition that they are "in
want" (Luke 15:14). This spiritual desire prompted in the Awakening
stage may stem from significant negative experiences or significant
positive experiences. For the Prodigal, experiencing physical hunger
prompted an acute awareness of his context and a re-assessment of his
condition and identity. The desire to know and connect to God, or
spiritual hunger, experienced by prodigals during particularly difficult
life experiences may promote such an assessment and awareness of
spiritual contexts previously unknown or forgotten. Just as positive
life experiences, such as having a child, may increase recognition of
one's own parents and home, positive spiritual experiences, such as
feeling a sense of peace during a sermon, may increase awareness of
one's heavenly home.
Reflecting on his current condition, the Prodigal recalled memories
of his boyhood home, particularly memories of "bread enough to
spare" (Luke 15:17) that could satisfy his hunger. Reflecting on
the Heavenly Father, prodigals may recall memories of feeling closer to
God and understanding more clearly their purpose in life. This stage of
Recognition represents the process prodigals may experience as they
remember positive spiritual experiences such as answered prayers,
baptisms, or Sunday school lessons and as they begin to acknowledge
similar spiritual experiences in their present circumstances.
As the Prodigal recalled and reflected upon memories of his father
and home, he may have integrated such positive memories into a life
narrative. Beyond the bread, the Prodigal perhaps recalled being deeply
loved by his father. These memories may have allowed him to see that his
father was a good, kind man who would accept him notwithstanding his
perceived unworthiness. Although this integration most likely was not
complete upon the Prodigal's return, as evidenced by his lament
that he was no longer worthy to be called a son (Luke 15:21), his father
dispelled that notion and provided ample evidence of his love for the
wayward child. Similarly, the Integration stage involves the process
prodigals may experience as they piece together spiritual memories and
continue to have spiritual experiences that instill an identity as
beloved sons and daughters of a Heavenly Father. Successful integration
of these memories and experiences may allow prodigals to reconcile with
God and to internalize the attributes they ascr ibe to Him. Ultimately,
it is only through the grace of a loving Father that prodigals'
false notions about Him and about themselves are dispelled, replaced
with the peaceful assurance of being born of God (Luke 15: 24).
THERAPEUTIC APPROACHES TO PROMOTE IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT: WORKING
WITH THE SPIRITUAL SELF
From a theistic perspective (Richards & Bergin, 1997),
psychotherapy involves assisting clients to recognize or reaffirm a
spiritual identity. The model we propose has the potential to inform
therapeutic approaches which promote spiritual identity development and,
we believe, simultaneously promote psychological well-being.
Specifically, therapists can use the model to first assess a
client's current stage of spiritual identity development and then
support him or her in progression to the next stage. This approach of
matching therapeutic interventions with the stage of identity
development coincides with other theories for promoting aspects of a
client's identity (e.g., Parham, 1989; Walters & Simoni, 1993).
By first assessing and then intervening at the stage ascertained,
therapists may be more likely to facilitate their clients'
spiritual identity development.
Pre-Awareness
Clients at a P re-awareness stage have limited recognition of
spirituality. Some are even antagonistic to spiritual perspectives. With
such clients, the therapist's primary goal would be to guide them
toward opportunities to have a spiritual experience. Once they have had
such an opportunity, the secondary goal is to implicitly or explicitly
help the client recognize it as a spiritual experience.
Facilitating clients' spiritual experiences in and out of
therapy is more beneficial and more appropriate than overtly discussing
spirituality, which too often leads to detached cognitive analysis
against which clients can easily defend. Rather than overtly mentioning
religion or spirituality, therapists can seek to connect with their
clients at a spiritual level, a practice which has been called
"meta-empathy" (Richards & Bergin, 1997). Such a
"meta-empathic" connection is useful with clients at all
stages of spiritual identity development, although it is particularly
useful with clients at the Pre-awareness stage because the therapeutic
relationship may be one of fexv opportunities to have a spiritual
experience.
If the client acknowledges an event, interaction, or feeling that
appears to be spiritual, the therapist can raise client awareness by
implicitly or explicitly inviting the client to regard the experience as
spiritual. For example, if a client expresses a feeling of contentment,
the therapist could label implicitly by using a metaphor about inner
balance or label explicitly by remarking that feelings of inner peace
are sometimes spiritual. By labeling spiritual experiences, the
therapist provides the client with a conceptual schema, while at the
same time normalizing discussion of spiritual issues. If the client
associates spirituality with prior negative religious experiences,
labeling of new spiritual experiences provides a means to differentiate
past injuries from positive spirituality. Similarly, labeling
experiences provides clients with a lexicon of spiritual terms with
which the therapist can facilitate further identity development.
Awakening
As with the case of the Prodigal, humility is often requisite for
spiritual receptivity. Many clients seeking therapy are likely to be
"in want" (Luke 15:14) and may have experienced or may be
experiencing life events that encourage reflection on who they are and
how they fir in the world. However, clients in the Awakening stage
typically have minimal resources, understanding, or motivation to draw
from to further their spiritual identity development, particularly if
they focus exclusively on resolving their current dilemma or
circumstance. Therefore, the primary goal for clients at this stage is
to increase their trust in the availability and salience of spiritual
guidance and strength.
The therapist can accomplish this goal by helping the client
recognize and learn about spirituality, developing awareness of the
benefits of relying on spiritual sources for strength. Clients who
accurately recognize their own abilities and limitations are more likely
to turn to spiritual sources for help. To increase insight, therapists
can assist clients in retelling stories from a spiritual perspective and
can ask questions, pose paradoxes, and use metaphors and analogies
designed to help clients become aware of spiritual influences in their
lives.
Because clients at the Awakening stage usually have limited
experience with spirituality or may be motivated only by their current
distress, stressing action plans may be premature. Rather, the therapist
should focus on increasing his or her clients' faith in spiritual
guidance, which may entail some actions but primarily emphasizes
identification of spirituality across situations and relationships.
Recognition
Clients in the Recognition stage have already begun the cognitive
and emotional process of generalizing spiritual awareness across
situations and relationships. They have developed basic trust in the
Holy Spirit who prompts them to reflect upon past experiences and
strengthens them from time to time. Therefore, the primary goal when
working with clients at this stage is to assist them to put their
awareness into practice, helping them to better align their actions with
their values and their God image.
Therapists can help clients prepare for behavioral change by
exploring with them the ramifications of that change and by co-creating
a vision of how that change would occur and what it would look like to
the client. Meaningful prayer, fasting, and participation in ritual or
public worship are particularly useful for clients at this stage as they
begin internalizing an identity that includes spiritual experiences.
Other useful actions include meditation on sacred texts, consultation
with helpful clergy, and voluntary sacrifice of self for others.
Encouraging clients to record spiritual memories and associated
spiritual emotions such as peace, love, joy, and faith (Galations
5:22-23) in journals maybe particularly helpful as writing enables them
to sort out and identify consistent themes. Therapists can use these
themes to help clients to see that spiritual experiences are part of
their very nature. Thus work with clients at this stage should focus on
internalizing spiritual experiences, helping the client view such
experiences as a way of life.
Integration
Clients at an Integration stage already see themselves as spiritual
beings, and they typically relate with others accordingly. However,
their faith is stronger in some areas than in others. Although they
strive to match their actions to their values, they may experience pride
and selfish desires that limit their willingness to submit themselves to
God's will. Therefore, the therapist's primary goal at this
stage is to assist the client to come to know God, to establish an
intimate relationship with Him.
As clients identify areas where their own desires could be made
more congruent with their God image, they can be encouraged to trust
that His grace is real, to make and keep spiritual commitments, to love
and serve others, and to gradually surrender their own desires to God.
Often these points are best achieved by assisting clients to restructure
their environments to more closely match their God image. For example,
clients may wish to reconsider the influence of the music/entertainment
they listen to or the way they discipline their children.
Finally, clients at the Integration stage can be encouraged to
elaborate upon their experiences by creating a coherent, meaningful
spiritual self-story. Re-experiencing and re-creating this narrative
explicitly may allow clients to see how they have become who they are
through God's grace and how their identity is truly eternal,
projecting into the future an endless relationship with God and His
creations. According to Robertson (1990), this spiritual narrating
process provides the very foundation of spiritual identity:
"Storytelling may be a step towards wholeness and therefore a part
of the healing activity of God. The Christian counselor will want to
say, furthermore, that when one's story is told, identity and
resolution found, God has been encountered in God's
self-revelation" (p. 39).
Points to Consider
As noted earlier, therapists should not expect that clients'
spiritual identity development will follow a linear progression through
stages. They should also not expect clients to move from one stage to
another rapidly. The best that a therapist can hope for is that a client
will progress toward the next higher stage. Again, demonstrating
sensitivity and support via "meta-empathy" may be the most
helpful technique of all, whatever the client's idiosyncratic
developmental patterns may be.
Most importantly, a therapist should remember that therapy is not
an appropriate forum for proselytizing. They should be aware of how
their own religious and spiritual beliefs influence their work in
therapy and thus monitor potential imposition of their own values upon
the client. Therapists can, however, be appropriately open with clients
about spiritual issues, raising questions or making observations that
are pertinent to the content of therapy and congruent with the
client's interests and values. For a discussion of ethical
guidelines for appropriately addressing spiritual issues in therapy, see
Richards and Bergin (1997).
COMPARING THE SPIRITUAL IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT MODEL WITH
FOWLER'S FAITH DEVELOPMENT THEORY
The spiritual identity development model proposed in this article
may be compared with James Fowler's (1981) work on faith
development. Fowler proposed a developmental sequence for faith that
also addressed some aspects of identity development. According to his
model, identity is formed through a process of early interactions with
others and subsequent individuation from others. Fowler posited that
individuals must establish a secure sense of self through these
processes before they are able to transcend the self and relate to God.
His perspective contends that an individual must develop the Jamesian
"social self" before developing the Jamesian "spiritual
self." Fowler described individuals at Stage 3 of the faith
development sequence as wanting to relate to a God who confirms the
identity they have already attained through their social relationships.
Others have observed that Fowler's theory presents two distinct and
sequential processes of development: an identity development process of
becoming more autono mous and individuated (faith stages 1 through 4)
and a spiritual development process of transcending the self to relate
to God (faith stages 5 and 6; Ford-Grabowsky, 1986). Our model argues
that individuals develop a sense of spiritual self through a process of
relating to God that is concurrent with and connected to the process of
relating to others. Rather than asserting the need to separate from
others in order to transcend the self and relate to God, our model
suggests that individuals need to connect to others and to God in order
to transcend the self.
Fowler further focuses on cognitive changes within the individual
(e.g., changes from concrete to abstract thinking, changes from
egocentrism to perspective-taking) to explain progression through levels
of identity and faith. From the perspective of our spiritual identity
model, spiritual identity development is promoted primarily from divine
influences outside the individual. Thus, rather than being an
afterthought as with Fowler's (1981) theory, development through
spiritual experiences becomes central in this new model.
RESEARCH DIRECTIONS TO UNDERSTAND IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT:
STUDYING THE SPIRITUAL SELF
Our intent for this article was to examine possible parallels
between spiritual identity development and major theories of
psychological identity development, as well as to suggest possible
therapy approaches derived from these theories that might be applied to
promote healthy spiritual identity development. Although our analysis
may provide useful insights into the construct of spiritual identity,
this work represents a tentative conceptualization of spiritual identity
that should be studied directly. We hope that the spiritual identity
development and therapy models we have proposed provide an impetus for
additional work and refinement.
This additional work might include an initial series of studies
employing qualitative methods (e.g., interviews). Narrative approaches
may be particularly useful for exploring how individuals experience the
processes and changes in their spiritual identities (Ganzevoort, 1998b).
Narrative methods would also allow researchers to assess contexts of and
influences to spiritual development. Spiritual self-stories may reveal
sequences of spiritual identity development to refine the stages we have
proposed and to inform the question of whether the spiritual self
develops after the social self, as proposed by Fowler, or concurrent
with the social self, as presented in the proposed model. Furthermore,
as Howard (1991) asserts, narrative research methods would facilitate
communication and collaboration among researchers and participants of
differing cultures, particularly of differing religious cultures.
Due to the intimate, even sacred nature of studying
individuals' spiritual lives, researchers would do well to
collaborate with religious leaders and religious scholars to more
"truthfully' (Howard, 1985) represent the construct of
spiritual identity. This dialogue between religious scholars and
psychology scholars would be mutually beneficial in the study of such
topics as the spiritual self (Jones, 1994).
As researchers gain additional insight into the construct of
spiritual identity, further studies can be conducted to explore possible
self-protective and self-enhancing effects of healthy spiritual identity
development. These studies could examine possible links between stages
of spiritual identity development and psychological well-being. Scholars
have already proposed links between spiritual identity and coping
capacity (Ganzevoort, 1998a). To examine such potential relationships, a
quantitative measure based on the proposed spiritual identity
development model would need to be created, Validation of the measure
and the model could be informed by existing research on God image and
spiritual attachment (e.g., Kirkpatrick, 1999). Further, therapy outcome
studies could be conducted to monitor changes in psychological health
subsequent to therapy provided according to the spiritual identity
therapy model.
In conclusion, individuals' developmental needs to define
themselves and to connect to others are divine in origin (Josephson,
1994). Psychological theories may address but not entirely explain these
needs (James, 1902); nevertheless, we can explore these shared human
needs through secular theories interpreted through a theistic
perspective without contradicting or adulterating religious belief.
Therefore, as Christians and therapists we should continue to "feel
after" (Acts 17:27) how individuals define and "find"
themselves in relation to God and eternity by studying the spiritual
self.
REFERENCES
Bergin, A. E. (1991). Values and religious issues in psychotherapy
and mental health. American Psychologist, 46,394-403.
Bjorck, J. P. (1995). A self-centered perspective on
McIntosh's religious schema. The international Journal for the
Psychology of Religion, 5,23-29.
Bowen, M. (1978). Family therapy in clinical practice. Northvale,
NJ: Jason Aronson.
Brandtstadter, J., & Greve, W. (1994). The aging self:
Stabilizing and protective processes. Developmental Review, 14, 52-80.
Conway, M. A., & Pleydell-Pearce, C. W. (2000). The
construction of autobiographical memories in the self-memory system.
Psychological Review, 107,261.288.
Coon, D. J. (2000). Salvaging the self in a world without soul:
William James's The principles of psychology. History of
Psychology, 3,83-103.
Elkind, D. (1997). The origins of religion in the child, In B.
Spilka & D. N. McIntosh (Eds.), The psychology of religion:
Theoretical approaches (pp.97-104). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Erikson, E. H. (1996). The Galilean saying and the sense of
'I.' Psychoanalysis and Contemporary Thought, 19,291-337.
Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and society. New York: W. W.
Norton & Company.
Fassinger, R E., & Miller, B. A. (1996). Validation of an
inclusive model of sexual minority identity formation on a sample of gay
men. Journal of Homosexuality, 32,53-78.
Ford-Grabowsky, M. (1986). What developmental phenomenon is Fowler
studying? Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 5,5-13.
Fowler, J. W (1981). Stages of faith: The psychology of human
development and the quest for meaning. New York: Harper & Row.
Ganzevoort, R. R. (1998a). Religious coping reconsidered, part one:
An integrated approach. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 26,260-275.
Gauzevoort, R. R. (1998b). Religious coping reconsidered, part two:
A narrative reformulation. Journal of Psychology and Theology,
26,276-286.
Hood, R. W. (1989). The relevance of theologies for religious
experiencing. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 17, 336-342.
Howard, G. S. (1991) Culture tales: A narrative approach to
thinking, cross-cultural psychology, and psychotherapy. American
Psychologist, 46, 187-197.
Howard, C. S. (1985). The role of values in the science of
psychology. American Psychologist, 40, 255-265.
Howe, M. L., & Courage, M. L. (1997). The emergence and early
development of autobiographical memory. Psychological Review, 104,
499-523.
James, W. (1968). The self. In C. Gordon & K. J. Gergen (Eds.),
The self in social interaction (Vol. 1, pp. 41-49). New York: J. Wiley
& Sons. (Original work published in 1910)
James, W. (1902). The varieties of religious experience: A study of
human nature. New York: The Modern Library.
James, W. (1890). The principles of psychology: Vol. 1. New York:
Henry Holt and Company.
Jones, S. L. (1994). A constructive relationship for religion with
the science and profession of psychology: Perhaps the boldest model yet.
American Psychologist, 49, 184-199.
Josephson, A. M. (1994). A clinical theology of developmental
process: A child psychiatrist's perspective. Journal of Psychology
and Theology, 22, 120-129.
Kegan, R. G. (1979). The evolving self: A process conception for
ego psychology. The Counseling Psychologist, 8, 5-34.
Kelly, E. W (1995). Religion and spirituality in counseling and
psychotherapy. Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association.
Kirkpatrick, L. A. (1999). Attachment and religious representations
and behavior. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of
attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 803-822).
New York: The Guilford Press.
Kohut, H. (1977). The restoration of the self. New York:
International University Press.
Koteskey, R. L., Little, M. D., & Matthews, M. V. (1991).
Adolescent identity and depression. Journal of Psychology and
Christianity, 10, 48-53.
Mahler, M. S., Pine, F., & Bergman, A. (1975). The
psychological birth of the human infant: Symbiosis and individuation.
New York, NY: Basic Books.
Markus, H. (1977). Self-schemata and processing information about
the self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 63-78.
Markus, H., & Nurius, P. (1986). Possible selves. American
Psychologist, 41, 954-969.
McAdams, D. P. (1993). The stories we live by: Personal myths and
the making of the self. New York: Morrow.
McAdams, D. P. (1996). Personality, modernity, and the storied
self: A contemporary framework for studying persons. Psychological
Inquiry, 7, 295-321.
Miller, G. (1999). The development of the spiritual focus in
counseling and counselor education. Journal of Counseling and
Development, 77, 498-501
Miller, W. R., & Martin, J. E. (Eds.). (1988). Behavior therapy and religion: Integrating spiritual and behavioral approaches to change.
Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Moreland, J. P. (1998). Restoring the substance to the soul of
psychology. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 26, 29-43.
Parham, T. A. (1989). Cycles of psychological nigrescence. The
Counseling Psychologist, 17, 187-226.
Phinney, J. S. (1990). Ethnic identity in adolescents and adults:
Review of research. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 499-514.
Pulkkinen, L., & Roenkae, A. (1994). Personal control over
development, identity formation, and future orientation as components of
life orientation: A developmental approach. Developmental Psychology,
30, 260-271.
Richards, P. S., & Bergin, A. E. (1997). A spiritual strategy
for counseling and psychotherapy. Washington, D.C.: American
Psychological Association.
Richards, P. S., & Potts, R. W. (1995). Using spiritual
interventions in psychotherapy: Practices, successes, failures, and
ethical concerns of Mormon psychotherapists. Professional Psychology:
Research and Practice, 26, 163-170.
Richardson, R. W. (1987). "Differentiation of self" as a
therapeutic goal for the systemic pastoral counselor. Journal of
Pastoral Psychotherapy, 1, 33-45.
Rizzuro, A. (1979). The birth of the living God: A psychoanalytic study. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Roberts, R. E., Phinney, J. S., Masse, L. C., Chen, Y. R., Roberts,
C. R., & Romero, A. (1999). The structure of ethnic identity of
young adolescents from diverse ethnocultural groups. Journal of Early
Adolescence, 19, 301-322.
Robertson, B. (1990). Storytelling in pastoral counseling: A
narrative pastoral theology. Pastoral Psychology, 39, 33-45.
Sauvayre, P. (1995). On the dialectics of agency. Journal of
Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology, 15, 144-160.
Schwartz, R. C. (1999). Releasing the soul: Psychotherapy as a
spiritual practice. In F. Walsh (Ed.), Spiritual resources in family
therapy (pp. 223-239). New York: Guilford Publications.
Shafranske, E. P. (Ed.). (1996). Religion and the clinical practice
of psychology. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.
Stark, R. (2000). Religious effects: In praise of "idealistic humbug." Review of Religious Research, 41, 289-310.
Steenbarger, B. N. (1991). All the world is not a stage: Emerging
contextualist themes in counseling and development. Journal of
Counseling and Development, 70, 288-296.
Troiden, R. R. (1989). The formation of homosexual identities.
Journal of Homosexuality, 17, 43-73.
Walters, K. L., & Simoni, J. M. (1993). Lesbian and gay male
group identity attitudes and self-esteem: Implications for counseling
Journal of Counseling Psychology, 40, 94-99.
Worthington, E. L., Jr., Kurusu, T. A., McCullough, M. E., &
Sanders, S. J. (1996). Empirical research on religion and
psychotherapeutic processes and outcomes: A ten-year review and research
prospectus. Psychological Bulletin, 119, 448-487.
AUTHORS
POLL, JUSTIN B. Address: Department of Counseling Psychology and
Special Education, Brigham Young University, 340 MCKB, Provo, UT 84602.
Title: Counseling Psychology Doctoral Candidate. Degree: MA, Boston
College. Specializations: Spirituality and positive psychology,
vocational and consulting psychology, interpersonal and narrative
psychotherapy, and qualitative research methodologies.
SMITH, TIMOTHY B. Address: Department of Counseling Psychology and
Special Education, Brigham Young University, 340 MCKB, Provo, UT 84602.
Title: Associate Professor. Degree: PhD, Utah State University.
Specializations: Spirituality and mental health, intergroup relations,
multicultural psychology, and relational perspectives of mental health.
Correspondence concerning this article may he sent to justin B.
Poll, PhD, Brigham Young University, MCKB, P0 Box 25093, Provo, UT
84602-5093.