Suppressed Desires and Tickless Time: an intertextual critique of modernity.

Marlowe, Robert Lloyd

On or about December, 1910, human character changed.

--V. Woolf

Within the context of her essay, "Mr. Bennett and Mrs. Brown," Virginia Woolf's frequently quoted observation refers to a change in interpersonal relations, but for us it also evokes the new theories of human nature, as well as of the cosmos, that rocked the culture and radically altered the way people saw themselves, each other, and their world as the nineteenth century turned into the twentieth. Historian Stephen Kern describes the process as a change in human consciousness: "From around 1880 to the outbreak of World War I, a series of sweeping changes in technology and culture created distinctive new modes in thinking about and experiencing time and space" (1). Kern goes on to list the inventions (telephone, cinema, automobile, etc.) that re-formed spatial and temporal orientations and then discusses the ways in which cultural production reflected these new ways of seeing the world: "Independent cultural developments such as the stream-of-consciousness novel, psychoanalysis, Cubism, and the theory of relativity shaped consciousness directly. The result was a transformation of the dimensions of life and thought" (1-2).

For playwrights Susan Glaspell and George Cram Cook, everyday life offered many examples of ideas transforming people and culture; such new ideas proved intellectually challenging and creatively stimulating for the couple as well. Fellow Provincetown Player Hutchins Hapgood described the spirit that motivated his contemporaries in this way: "Whether in literature, plastic art, the labor movement ... we find an instinct to loosen up the old forms and traditions, to dynamite the baked and hardened earth so that fresh flowers can grow" (Quoted in Heller 217).

Two plays in particular, Suppressed Desires (1914) and Tickless Time (1918), engage this new thinking and function chronologically as bookends for the corpus of Glaspell and Cook's one-act Provincetown Plays. (1) The culture of their place and time was the culture of modernism, governed by what Brazilian scholar Silviano Santiago has termed "the aesthetic of the new" and "the aesthetic of rupture." Many of Glaspell's Provincetown plays are informed by these aesthetics, most notably the two that she wrote with Cook. This essay will examine Tickless Time as a work that reflects and comments on its intertext, Suppressed Desires. Read against each other, these plays can complicate and deepen our understanding of Glaspell and Cook's critique of the modernist impulse to eschew convention and conformity, subvert established aesthetic norms, and attain personal growth and authenticity by embracing new scientific and psychological theories.

Although they deal with completely different subjects, Suppressed Desires and Tickless Time have much in common. Each play enacts a search for truth, a quest for self-actualization, and an attempt to escape from conformity, all characteristics of the early twentieth-century zeitgeist. Each play reflects and gently mocks the trendy modernist thinking of Glaspell and Cook's Greenwich Village and Provincetown colleagues. Suppressed Desires is ostensibly about psychoanalysis, a subject that had been a continual theme of conversation and a popular project of self-discovery ever since Sigmund Freud lectured at Clark University in 1909 and Dr. A.A. Brill subsequently gave a series of talks on the topic at Mabel Dodge's fashionable Wednesday evening salons. At that time in Greenwich Village, it became chic to undergo psychoanalysis: Mabel Dodge herself and Masses editors Floyd Dell and Max Eastman were among the first to be psychoanalyzed. Sherwood Anderson recalls in his memoirs that "Freud had been discovered at the time and all the young intellectuals were busy analyzing each other and everyone they met" (243). Anderson remembers Dell lecturing on the subject at a party and then psychoanalyzing the guests: "And now he had begun psyching us. Not Floyd alone but others in the group did it. They psyched me. They psyched men passing in the street" (243).

Tickless Time, written thirty-four years after the establishment of World Standard Time by the Prime Meridian Conference, thirteen years after Einstein's discovery of special relativity, and two years after his discovery of general relativity, reflects scientific and lay concerns with the nature of time and space that were generated by Einstein's work and that of other early twentieth-century scientists and thinkers. While the idea for the play may have originated in Jig Cook's project of constructing a plaster sundial for their Provincetown home that Glaspell describes in The Road to the Temple (280-81), the drama itself uses this incident as a jumping-off point to place in dialogue conflicting notions of time, space, truth, and representation. Eloise Joyce's question to her husband, "Ian, which do you think is the more wonderful--space of time?' (Plays 279), brings to mind Einstein's then current notion of spacetime, a single backdrop against which all events are staged, in contradiction to the Newtonian ideas of separate and independent Absolute Space and Time. Ian Joyce's enthusiastic assertion that "space is rhythm and time is flow ...." (Plays 281) also evokes Einstein's revolutionary conception, as well as Henri Bergson's notion of time as flux (duree). (2)

The protagonists of the two plays mirror each other in that each character Ca woman in Suppressed Desires and a man in Tickless Time) is enthusiastically championing a new idea. Henrietta Brewster and Ian Joyce are truth seekers who become obsessed with a new theory as a way of better apprehending Absolute Truth and promoting personal growth. Also appearing in each play are naifs--Henrietta's sister Mabel in Suppressed Desires and the Joyces's friends Eddy and Alice in Tickless Time, as well as "Provincetown native" Mrs. Stubbs and the Joyces's Cook, Annie. These characters function as foils to the protagonists, and their unenlightened reactions to the cutting edge thinking of the main characters create the humor of the play. Henrietta tries to involve her architect husband Stephen and her sister in psychoanalysis as a path to the real soul/self, recalling Dell's comment that, "everyone at that time who knew about psychoanalysis was a sort of missionary on the subject, and nobody could be around Greenwich Village without learning a lot about it," (Hoffman 56). Ian tries to help Eloise understand that a sundial, rather than a clock, can get them closer to "a first-hand relation with truth" and further from a machine-dominated, standardized society (Plays 278). Furthermore, ruled by their obsessions, each character tends to go overboard in espousing the big new idea. Stephen Brewster, mocking Henrietta, says she considers Freud to be the new Messiah and Jung to be the new St. Paul (Plays 240); Ian proposes not only to stop using clocks but to bury them in the backyard as well. "Into these graves go all that is clock-like in our own minds," he enthuses (Plays 282). Both Henrietta and Ian seek to control nature, people, and the environment so as to order their lives according to what they perceive to be Absolute Truth. Because their fanaticism in the service of the theories they espouse brings them into conflict with deep-seated values and mores, Henrietta and Ian fail in their quests.

It is the ways in which these plays differ, though, rather than the ways in which they are similar, that are more significant. Suppressed Desires takes place in Greenwich Village, as is emphasized in the set design, which features an enormous window in the back wall through which can be seen the Washington Square Arch. The prominence of this landmark, a synecdoche for Greenwich Village modernism, in the play's set design foregrounds the bohemian milieu and mindset that shaped Cook and Glaspell's lives. Tickless Time is set in a garden in Provincetown, another location associated with the bohemian avant-garde, but its set design features sunflowers, trees, and sky. These urban/rural and artificial/natural binaries are echoed in the contrasting interactive styles of the main characters. The frenetic urban energy of Henrietta and Stephen is counterbalanced by the more easygoing and leisurely mood established by Ian and Eloise's interchanges. These shifts point the way, as we turn from Suppressed Desires to Tickless Time, to an evolution in Glaspell's and Cook's thinking in the four years that separate these productions, evident in the movement of each play, as its through-line drives the work to its conclusion.

Suppressed Desires is a more simply constructed play than Tickless Time, yet both plays enact a process of burying and digging up, metaphorically in the case of Suppressed Desires and literally in the case of Tickless Time. Henrietta urges Stephen and Mabel to examine their dreams as a means of unearthing their suppressed desires, reflecting the Freudian belief that suppressing our needs and desires leads to neurosis and identifying, articulating, and coming to terms with them facilitates authenticity and self-actualization. Thus, Henrietta wants her husband to undergo psychoanalysis because she believes that his creativity is blocked. Stephen and Mabel do undergo psychoanalysis and dig up their suppressed desires. Henrietta, who has pontificated that "Old institutions will have to be reshaped" (Plays 244) loses her enthusiasm for this kind of excavation when Stephen's dream shows that the old institution he wants to be free of is marriage and Mabel's dream reveals her suppressed desire for Stephen. The through-line of the play is governed by Mabel's and Henrietta's contrasting character arcs: Mabel becomes increasingly (and humorously) persuaded of the validity of psychoanalysis at the same time that Henrietta grows disenchanted with it as she learns that new theories, however intellectually stimulating, have their limits; psychoanalysis is fine in the abstract but often too dangerous to deal with in the here and now because it can threaten things that we hold dear. However, Henrietta simply rejects psychoanalysis out of hand without demonstrating any problems within the theory itself.

Henrietta repudiates theory and modernity when they become threatening, much as do Eloise and Ian Joyce, but Tickless Time rewrites the earlier play by having its characters engage in a literal and more complicated process of burying and digging up that structures the action of the play. Like Suppressed Desires, it satirizes the throw-it-all-overboard-and-make-it-new spirit that characterized many modernist endeavors; however, the later play also calls into question the existence of Absolute Truth, the ability of any kind of representational system to apprehend truth, and the modernist project of transcending aesthetic forms. This play centers on the literal burial of man-made, mechanized time by Ian and Eloise, and the subsequent unearthing of the clocks they have buried when they learn a lesson similar to that learned by Henrietta. But in this case the lesson learned is not merely the limitations of a particular theory but the incapacity of theory to embody Absolute Truth because it can only be apprehended through some sort of representation, which inevitably becomes a barrier to that truth. What Ian and Eloise come to terms with, in other words, is the inescapability of representation itself. They learn that time and the clocks that represent it form an impenetrable circle, demonstrating Victor Turner's assertion that "human social life is the product and producer of time, which becomes its measure" (24).

In Suppressed Desires, representation makes an appearance chiefly in the form of Mabel and Stephen's dreams. Debate centers on what elements in these dreams may mean, but the earlier play does not, as does Tickless Time, call into question the ability of a representational system to apprehend an unmediated Truth. Here Glaspell's critique of Platonism comes into play, much as it does in her solo effort The Verge (1921), in which Claire Archer's quest to create a flower that is "outside what flowers have been" (17) proves futile and tragic. (3) In Tickless Time, the apprehension of Absolute or Ideal time is Ian's objective: he fashions the sundial that is supposed to tell the actual sun time and thus establish "a direct relation with truth" (Plays 290). He sneers at clocks as "approximations" of time (Plays 287) and convinces his wife to abandon and bury the clocks as inadequate representations of pure time and thus escape from representation altogether. But, as Eloise points out, even with the sundial, Ian has to "fix up the sun" (Plays 301) since the sundial tells sun time with 100% accuracy only four times a year, and thus must be supplemented at all other times with a chart. This realization leads the Joyces to bury the sundial, dig up the alarm clock, and place it on the sundial's pedestal. Throughout the course of the play they come to understand that, as W. J. T. Mitchell says, "[e]very representation exacts some cost, in the form of lost immediacy, presence, or truth, in the form of a gap between intention and realization, original and copy "(21). Like Claire Archer, Ian finds himself trapped by representation.

Paradoxically, Tickless Time both reflects and undermines modernist thinking. Ian's quest for Absolute Time was demonstrated by the physicists of his day to be the impossible dream. In 1883 the German physicist Ernst Mach called Newton's concept of Absolute Time "an idle metaphysical conception" (223). Einstein further chipped away at the notion of Absolute Time by showing that this concept, derived from our life experiences and intuition, was simply incorrect in principle. The theory of relativity, convincingly supported in all experimental tests, shows that time passes at different rates for observers moving relative to each other; thus, there can be no Absolute or True Time independent of the position of those who are measuring it. Although this effect is not noticeable in everyday life because all speeds we encounter are very small compared to the speed of light, Einstein's work nonetheless destroyed forever Ian's cherished ideal of Absolute Time. The multiplicity of clocks in the play--wristwatch, cuckoo clock, alarm clock, kitchen clock--may only incidentally remind us of Einstein's statement in The Evolution of Physics that in his theory we may imagine "as many clocks as we like in a given CS [coordinate system]" (181), but, more importantly underscores his notion that time is always mediated, constructed, and relative to the observer's frame of reference. The consternation created in the play as characters learn that sundial time is different from clock time, such as Eloise's comment that if the train runs by the wrong time then "we have to be wrong to catch the train" (285) reflects the popular misconception of what relativity is rather than the actual concept, which makes statements about the rate of time flow being different for observers in different reference frames. In a broader sense, though, all of the problems the characters experience with sun time versus clock time are suggestive of the tumult generated by Einstein's discovery of relativity. (4)

Tickless Time, a more complex play than Suppressed Desires, employs modern scientific theory to show the limits of traditional thinking and Idealist notions about the cosmos through Ian's failure to directly apprehend True Time via the sundial. The play also, through this same process, critiques modernism as well, focusing on its central project: experimentation with the limits of form itself. Georg Simmel describes this project as "no longer a struggle of contemporary form, filled with life, against the lifeless one, but a struggle of life against form as such, against the principle of form" (12). In the early decades of the last century, modern artists sought to "discard the formal procedures and decorums of their Romantic predecessors" (Howe 15), as novelists sought to put space in fiction, painters challenged the Euclidean logic of the plane, and sculptors tried to imbue statues with motion. New kinds of art resulted from these experiments: the stream of consciousness novel, Futurist works of sculpture, Cubist paintings, Imagist poetry, Expressionist drama. But as Howe further points out, the modernist quest to counter the prevalent style with a new one is doomed to failure:

 But modernism does not establish a prevalent
 style of its own; or if it does, it denies itself,
 thereby ceasing to be modern. This presents it
 with a dilemma which in principle may be
 beyond solution but in practice leads to formal
 inventiveness and resourceful dialectic--the
 dilemma that modernism must always struggle but
 never quite triumph, and then, after a time, must
 struggle in order to triumph (4).

Ian's project of rendering time through a plaster-cast sundial, reminiscent of the Futurist sculptors' attempts to represent speed in a medium traditionally described as spatial, and Claire Archer's efforts to create "a plant like caught motion" (11), is a futile endeavor, demonstrated by the dialectical movement of the plot, as absolute time is asserted, found to be a myth and rejected, reasserted and then abandoned. (5)

This dialectical movement- (burying the clocks/digging up the alarm clock/burying the sundial and replacing it with the alarm clock/re-burying the alarm clock/digging up the clocks and the sundial), similar to that seen in Cook's Change Your Style (1915)--does not merely undermine particular representations, as does Suppressed Desires; it calls into question the stability and reliability of representation itself and the possibility of ever wholly escaping it. As the play's thesis (time is absolute) comes into conflict with its antithesis (time is relative to the frame of reference in which it is measured), the binaries of Nature/Artifice and Truth/Falsity are deconstructed. The resulting synthesis, marked by the digging up of the clocks and the sundial, acknowledges both perspectives, but the play ultimately affirms the notion that different frames of reference can experience different times a la a relativity, when Mrs. Stubbs opines, "Well, I say: let them that want sun time have sun time and them that want tick time have tick time" (315). The play ends, fully grounded in the here and now rather than in the Absolute and the Ideal, with the cook's summoning of the two couples back from the realm of the cosmic to the domain of the quotidian as she announces flatly: "It's dinner time" (315).

A cursory reading of these plays suggests that they are cautionary tales about embracing theory uncritically and without regard to context: don't let theory colonize your brain. You can believe that Zeno's arrow will never reach its target, they warn, but it might be best to jump out of the way if you happen to be standing in front of the archer. The same reading also issues a caveat to the reader about leaping enthusiastically upon every new bandwagon in a never-ending struggle to be up to date and in the know. Today, we probably read Lacan more often than we read Freud, and Hawking more frequently than Einstein; in twenty or thirty years, Lacan and Hawking may well be superseded by the "Next Big Thing" in their respective field. As Max Eastman warns:

 [M]odernity is a poor thing to feel priggish
 about; it only makes you a more obvious mark
 for the prigs of a new modernity to sneer back
 at. No man can keep up with the times for
 more than seventy years, and after that his
 frantic efforts to do so look silly forever (135).

But subsequent, more careful readings of these plays reveal a critique of modernity, particularly in Tickless Time, that goes beyond warning against fads and fashions. Both Suppressed Desires and Tickless Time focus on the nature and limits of representation. Henrietta Brewster learns, to her sorrow, that signs are unstable, meaning is indeterminate, and a text becomes complete only when a particular reader's mindset and biases are brought to bear on it. In Tickless Time, Cook and Glaspell take the premise of Suppressed Desires one step further. Ian Joyce learns that representation can never be one with meaning; his cherished sundial is no more a path to Absolute Time and Truth than are the clocks he wants to bury.

An intertextual consideration of Suppressed Desires and Tickless Time can thus provide an illuminating perspective on Glaspell and Cook's other one-act plays for the Provincetown stage, most of which center on some form of representation: works of art in Cook's Change Your Style, the book containing the Root family history and genealogy in Glaspell's Close the Book, the magazine that gives Glaspell's The People its title, the radio broadcast that sets the plot of her Woman's Honor in motion. All of these plays humorously but effectively call into question the stability and reliability of various representational systems. As Edward Said says,

 The real issue is whether indeed there can be a
 true representation of anything, of whether
 any and all representations, because they are
 representations, are embedded first in the language
 and then in the culture, institutions,
 and political ambience of the representer ...
 [therefore], we must be prepared to accept the
 fact that a representation is eo ipso implicated,
 intertwined, embedded, interwoven with a
 great many other things besides the "truth,"
 which is itself a representation (272).

Tickless Time, reenacting satirically this futile quest to escape representation and achieve a first-hand relation with Absolute Truth, also endorses Suppressed Desire's reinscription of traditional values regarding love and marriage, as the Joyces reconcile their conflicts and agree to live in accordance with traditional temporal conventions.

The exciting intellectual milieu of the early modern period was a time in which traditional genre and discipline barriers fell as ideas from one sphere permeated and shaped those of another. Arnold Bennett acknowledged this process when he testified to the consciousness-altering power of modern art in "Neo-Impressionism and Literature." The fact that his essay was first published on December 8, 1910, may have prompted Virginia Woolf to write the sentence that begins this essay and to expand upon it in "Mr. Bennett and Mrs. Brown" as she describes how the literature of Lawrence, Joyce and Eliot differs from that of the preceding generation of writers: "Thus it is that we hear all round us, in poems and novels and biographies, even in newspaper articles and essays, the sound of breaking and falling, crashing and destruction ... [g]rammar is violated, syntax disintegrated." (6) The sound Woolf heard reverberated across the Atlantic and echoed in American theatres as Susan Glaspell, Eugene O'Neill, Elmer Rice, Sophie Treadwell, and other playwrights forged a new drama through bold innovations in language, set design, and play construction. Although Suppressed Desires and Tickless Time do not themselves exemplify the kind of formal experimentalism that Woolf describes, the plays do reflect thematically the kinds of changes in human consciousness she discusses, changes that were wrought by the new psychology and the new science, among other disciplines. Both plays function as correctives to the excesses of modernism; Tickless Time, both reflective and critical of modernism, comments on its intertext, Suppressed Desires, demonstrating the dilemma inherent in the modernist project of transcending the limits of representation.

NOTES

(1.) Aside from their significance as discussed in this essay, Suppressed Desires and Tickless Time hold places of importance in the history of the Provincetown Players and in American theatre history as well. Suppressed Desires was the second play ever to be performed by the Provincetown Players, staged at the home of Neith Boyce and Hutchins Hapgood during the summer of 1915. Tickless Time, first mounted by the Provincetown Players in 1918, became the curtain raiser for Eugene O'Neill's now classic work of expressionism The Emporer Jones when it moved from the Playwright's Theatre to Broadway in 1920.

(2.) J. Ellen Gainor suggests that Glaspell and Cook wrote Tickless Time in response to Henri Bergson's essay Time and Free Will: An Essay on the Immediate Data of Consciousness.

(3.) For a fuller discussion of Glaspell's treatment of the modernist quest to transcend the limitations form, see Marcia Noe's "The Verge: L'Ecriture Feminine at the Provincetown."

(4.) From a physicist's viewpoint, the humanist concern over a new theory of space-time (relativity) was largely misplaced. Neither Cook, Glaspell, nor anyone else at the time the paly was written could have known about what would become the real "practical" impact of relativity--the atomic bomb, which was more than two decades away.

(5.) Although the sundial is not described in the play, the one Cook made for his own garden in Provincetown was an elaborate work of art that included four modeled figures representing Dawn, Noon, Sunset, and the North Star (see Susan Glaspell's The Road to the Temple, 278-9).

(6.) Although Woolf, in "Mr. Bennet and Mrs. Brown," was responding to an earlier essay of Bennet's, "Is the Novel Decaying?" in which he accuses Woolf of not developing convincing, memorable, and vital characters in her novel Jacob's Room, the time of publication, subject matter and opinions of "Neo-Impressionism and Literature" seem too closely related to Woolf's remarks in "Mr. Bennett and Mrs. Brown" to be coincedental, and it seems likely that Woolf had Neo-Impressionism and Literature" in her mind as well as "Is the Novel Decaying?" when she wrote her famous essay.

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