Developing Shanghai underground pedestrian system under urbanization: mobility, functionality and equity.
Cui, Jianqiang ; Allan, Andrew ; Taylor, Michael A.P. 等
Introduction
Urban underground space (UUS) has been widely recognized as a
valuable resources that can largely contribute to the shortage of space
aboveground for urban development (Admiraal 2006; Bobylev 2009; Sterling
1997). UUS has been developed with various functions such as transport
including metro, motor tunnel and parking as well as utilities including
heating, water supply and sewerage (Admiraal 2012; Bobylev 2010;
Cornaro, Admiraal 2012; Durmisevic 1999; Ronka et al. 1998; Sterling
1996), among which, transport is the most common function of UUS
development (Bobylev 2009).
In central areas of substantial cities around the world, grade
separation pedestrian systems including underground pedestrian systems
(UPS) and skywalk systems integrated with multiple urban functions such
as transport, commerce, entertainment and social activities, extending
urban life from the street level to multiple levels. The most extended
UPS can be found in North American cities such as Montreal's RESO
UPS, 32 km in length covering more than 41 city blocks (Besner 2007) and
Chicago's Pedway UPS, extending over 8 [km.sup.2] in area and
covering 40 city blocks (Wang, Liang 2010). Besides, Japan in East Asian
is also a representation of UPS development. Umeda underground system in
Osaka City, the largest UPS in Japan, connects 3 subway stations and 24
buildings (Zacharias, Xu 2007). Cui et al. (2010) selected 51 cities
with UPS to conduct research, and noted that those systems were
distributed across cities in North America, South America, Europe, Asia
and Oceania. However, notwithstanding the apparently broad global
distribution of UPS, East Asia, Europe and North America are three
locations of UPS agglomeration.
UPS strategy obtained great success in a number of cities by
satisfying varied needs in different urban settings such as Montreal and
Toronto with their cold winters and Hong Kong and Tokyo with their high
urban densities. The initial rationale in developing grade separation
pedestrian systems was identified as providing protection for
pedestrians in central urban locations from severe weather conditions
(Belanger 2007; Robertson 1993a, 1993b; Terranova 2009; Warkentin,
Vachon 2009), easing traffic congestion related to vehicle-pedestrian
conflicts and improving pedestrian accessibility and safety (Bhalla,
Pant 1985; Corbett et al. 2009; Dillon 1985; Wang, Liang 2010), and
promoting transit, particularly in subway metros (Boisvert 2007; Dillon
1985; Robertson 1987b). After decades of development, the potential of
grade separation pedestrian systems in stimulating economic development
has become the dominant reason for investing in UPS. With increasing
competition from suburban shopping centres, in a bid to minimise escape
expenditure, maintain urban vitality and attract increased visits,
considerable city centres have built UPS and Skywalk systems (Corbett et
al. 2009; Robertson 1993a, 1993b).
Urbanization and urban pedestrian development in Shanghai
Shanghai's UPS has been developing under the background of
rapid urbanization process, which differs from cities in the advanced
economies where UPS were developed to maintain central area
attractiveness as a counterbalance to the decentralizing tendencies of
suburbanization (Cui et al. 2011). The urbanization process has had the
effects of, on one hand, rapid increases in urban population and income
levels of city dwellers, thereby increasing land shortages and land
price in central areas; on the other hand, changing the structure of
transportation, thereby providing a catalyst for UPS development.
Figure 1 indicated the growth of Shanghai's population between
2000 and 2009 that appeared to be increasing and centralizing rapidly.
Continuous increases of Shanghai's population, has resulted in a
shortage of urban spaces. Accordingly, underground spaces, as additional
space resources for urban functions in centralised locations were
gradually accepted and implemented by the authorities. Shanghai, as
China's largest metropolitan municipality is an exemplar of the
hyperbolic urban growth that has characterised the rapid urbanization of
China and its cities.
On the other hand, the structure of transportation has also rapidly
changed in unison with the surge of urbanization. Experiencing an
increasingly rapid motorization process, the number of cars in Shanghai
increased from 241,000 to 1,115,200 during 2001-2010 (Shanghai Bureau of
Statistics 2011). Although walking is still a dominant transport mode,
the rapid increase of private automobiles has challenged the priority
given to walking as a transport mode. Li and He (2008) studied the
changing structure of transport modal shares in Shanghai from 1986-2004,
with a trend away from walking (41% down to 29%) to automobiles
(increasing from less than 1% to 16.5%).
The phenomenon of motorization has intensified pedestrian-vehicle
conflicts. The phenomenal expansion of automobile transport has
negatively impacted on transportation modes of cycling and walking and
eroded the urban realm for these transportation modes, with side-effects
including pollution, car accidents and congestion. Additionally, the
situation of inadequate pedestrian facilities and inefficient traffic
management has disadvantaged pedestrians by failing to prevent conflicts
between automobiles and pedestrians (Li, He 2008). Recognizing the
significance of releasing pedestrian-vehicle conflicts and influenced by
the increasing popularity of public transport, walking and cycling in
countries around the world (such as in the U.S., France, Netherlands,
Britain and Germany), Shanghai have applied the Central City of
Shanghai's 2006 'Planning for Pedestrian Traffic System'
(Yu et al. 2009). With the gradual implementation of a public transport
priority strategy (with a strong focus on urban rail transport), modal
paths of 'walking + public transport + walking' and
'public transport + walking + public transport' appear
destined to become vital components of urban transport (Li, He 2008).
Hence, walking infrastructure systems can be expected to play a vital
role in the future transportation of Shanghai.
Moreover, the development and extension of Shanghai's metro
provides new opportunities for UPS utilization. The Shanghai Metro in
June 30th 2010 had 410 km of railway distributed across 11 lines serving
267 stations. Ultimately, Shanghai Metro Planning aims to expand the
metro to 480 km of railway with 6 new lines, serving 200 underground
stations concentrated within Shanghai's central area. Considerable
research has identified the catalytic effects of Metro development and
how transportation traffic pressures at street level encourage
underground public space utilization (Boisvert 2007; Dillon 1985;
Robertson 1987b). Therefore, it can be expected that the increase of
urban population, recognition of the importance of pedestrian and Metro
developments will facilitate the creation of UUS networks in the city
(Sterling et al. 2010), most likely in the form of UPS development in
the central areas. Current UPS may be extended, but new UPS are also
expected to be developed. Accordingly, research on the usage of
Shanghai's UPS has practical significance in providing guidance to
the future planning, design and development of UPS, particularly in
large Chinese cities.
UPS in People's Square, Jing'an Temple and Xujiahui in
Shanghai
Shanghai is a pioneer of UUS utilization in China. Early use of UUS
focused on Civil Air Defence purpose after the Second World War and
large-scale utilization of peacetime UUS started in the 1990s with the
construction of subway systems (He et al. 2012). Shanghai is a
representative of UPS development in China considering its history of
UPS development and the considerable scale of UPS. Shanghai exhibits one
of the busiest (in terms of foot traffic), most comprehensive, extensive
and sophisticated integrated UPS in the world, within one of the fastest
developing and rapidly modernizing world's major cities. Exemplars
of UPS in Shanghai located in People's Square, Jing'an Temple
and Xujiahui areas. The significance of developing UUS in People's
Square, Jing'an Temple and Xujiahui had been highlighted in the
'Conceptual Planning of Shanghai's Underground Space
(2005)'. In each case, a large public transit transfer hub
integrated with large underground concourses and underground shopping
streets has formed underground pedestrian networks extending in all
directions.
[FIGURE 2 OMITTED]
The Jing'an Temple area is located adjacent to a historical
site, the Jing'an Temple, a traditional cultural landmark and
includes a shopping centre and transit transfer centre; People's
Square area, a historic city centre, is a large public activity centre
that is an iconic urban landscape feature and an urban node that serves
as a large public transit transfer hub (offering 42 bus lines) and a
large rail transit transfer hub (with 3 subway lines); and the Xujiahui
area is one of four major sub-centers of Shanghai with commercial,
business and public activities and is a large rail transit transfer hub
(with 3 subway lines) (Chen 2008; Dong 2005; Xu et al. 2006).
The structure of the underground matrix of the three UPS is
characterised by axes and nodes. The locations and comparative structure
and size of the three UPS are shown in figure 2. UPS in the three
locations are integrated with transport, commercial, leisure and public
functions. The buildings and spaces connected to these three exemplar
UPS of Shanghai are listed in table 1. The three UPS have close
connection with their neighbouring buildings and spaces on the surface.
The arrangement of entrances and exits of the three UPS are set out in
table 2.
Literature review
Shanghai's implementation of UPS has resulted from concerns by
the city's planners of pedestrian transport inefficiencies, the
need to optimize transport infrastructure, the need to stimulate
commercial development, redeveloping the city centre and marketing a
better image for the city centre. What is uncertain is the extent to
which the government has completed a sufficient assessment of the
service quality of UPS and positive and negative influence of UPS
development. Effective exploration of the aforementioned issues requires
review of previous research and in-depth analysis of Shanghai's UPS
usage, together with users' assessments and opinions about the
development prospects of UPS.
However, research on the usage and perception of functionality of
Shanghai's UPS is limited. Notable research on the usage and
users' perception of UPS has been undertaken for grade separation
pedestrian systems (including skywalks and UPS) in cities of developed
countries especially in North American cities. Research has focused on
the aspects of accessibility, the ease of orientation, comfort,
convenience, safety, security and social issues of the usage and
perceptions of grade separation pedestrian systems (Barker 1986;
Belanger 2007; Benz, Lutin 1983; Byers 1998; Maitland 1992; Robertson
1987a, 1987b, 1988). In comparison, the research of the usage of
Shanghai's UPS has concentrated on the pattern of usage, commerce
structure, orientation, psychology, pedestrian flow, walking speed,
pedestrian density, behaviour of transportation, shopping and
way-finding (Ding et al. 2008; Kong et al. 2007; Mi et al. 2007; Wang et
al. 2001; Zhang, Huang 2008). The main shortcoming of past research on
Shanghai's UPS is that general pedestrian activity within UPS are
not the object of their research, rather, the object of their research
was on certain groups such as users of the metro rail systems located by
subway stations or of shoppers near underground commercial facilities.
In addition, when comparing research on Shanghai's UPS with
international research, the latter has greater variety and scope while
the Shanghai research tends to focus on basic statistics on the
characteristics of users and usage, which has limited value in yielding
conclusive findings that reflect the effects of UPS on the transport,
commercial and social functions of the city.
The ease, with which people can access a system and orient
themselves within a system, was one of the essential keys to a
successful second level pedestrian network (Robertson 1987b). The
importance of accessibility and the ease of orientation issues were
discussed in the previous research of UPS and Skywalk systems from the
aspects of opening hours, street level accessibility, the signage system
and the requirements of elderly and disabled people (Barker 1986;
Belanger 2007; Cui et al. 2012; Fruin 1987; Robertson 1988). Safety and
security are other major issues in the design and management of a
successful pedestrian system in terms of the indicators of documented
crime statistics and perceived safety (Forusz 1980; Robertson 1988).
With regard to the comfort and convenience of the system, the
issues of continuity of the system, transport integration, amenities and
atmosphere (including weather protection, lighting and decoration) were
reviewed. Robertson (1988) explored how skywalks coordinated with other
redevelopment strategies and his research found that the dilemma with
pedestrian malls is whether they complement or compete with other
systems. How well the system linked to other movement systems such as
parking ramps, buses and light rail transit (LRT) system was an
important consideration of pedestrians' convenience (Eady 1990;
Robertson 1987a, 1987b, 1993a). Discussion of pedestrian satisfaction of
amenities includes the quality of the design and the functionality of
the system. Forusz (1980) criticized the failure of Cincinnati Skywalk
in only physically integrating with bus systems and pedestrian streets
at ground level but not systematically in terms of design styles and the
absence of public service such as toilets, mailboxes, telephone booths,
newsstands and refuse cans. With regard to protection from weather and
noise, UPS are generally unaffected because they are underground.
The social equity aspects of UPS refer to whether or not the users
of UPS have equitable access and use of the UPS. The limitations of many
grade separation pedestrian systems in being inaccessible to handicapped
people were reflected in pedestrian systems users' profiles,
particularly during adverse weather (Robertson 1988). It is essential to
examine the extent to which all people would use grade separation
pedestrian systems in response to adverse various weather conditions,
given that such pedestrian systems are most likely to be used during
poor weather. Interestingly, Robertson (1988) found that skywalks were
welcomed by pedestrians not only during periods of poor weather when the
ambient temperature fell below zero degrees Celsius but also during warm
(25 degrees Celsius) and sunny days. Thus, skywalks became so intrinsic
to people's lives that they used them regardless of the weather
conditions. It is the habit to use skywalk and the habit is so strong
that it conquered the resistance from weather conditions. On the other
hand, Robertson's (1988) research identified that it was generally
the social elite that were the dominant users. People perceived that the
typical Skywalk user was a female white-collar worker earning a high
income of over 50,000 U. S. dollars (USD) a year (1988 values).
Robertson (1988) was therefore critical of the social inequities
apparent in grade separation pedestrian systems because they exclude
lower socioeconomic classes of people.
There has been only little attention given to the usage and
perceptions of UPS in cities in developing countries in investigating
the aspects of accessibility, the ease of orientation, comfort,
convenience, safety, security and social issues. To address these gaps,
the objectives of this study aim to answer the following questions,
using UPS in People's Square, Jing'an Temple and Xujiahui in
Shanghai as cases studies:
1. What are the social-economic characteristics of UPS users? How
do people's use of the UPS vary with weather conditions and time
periods? Are there social inequities in the use of UPS by the general
public?
2. How do users perceive the functionality of the UPS? What are the
shortcomings and problems of the functionality of the UPS?
Methodology
The case study is an appropriate methodological approach when a
project or program in an evaluation study is not readily distinguishable
from its context, and what can be obtained from the case study stands a
good chance of advancing knowledge and understanding of a given topic
(Yin 2003). Considering that previous literature is lacking on UPS in
China with little revealed on the characteristics of its usage and
users' perception about the functionality of UPS, the case study
appears to be the most appropriate method to investigate the usage of
Shanghai's UPS and users' perception about service quality of
UPS. Additionally, Robertson (1991) stated that a careful selection of a
small sample of case studies would allow a detailed site visit and thus
an in-depth treatment of the subject. The UPS in People's Square,
Jing'an Temple and Xujiahui, as exemplars of UPS in metropolitan
Shanghai, were selected to be the cases used in this study.
The questionnaire survey is a comparatively easy research tool to
apply and administer and can yield reliable statistically representative
information from a large number of people quite quickly (Gillham 2000).
A questionnaire survey was developed according to a review of references
regarding UPS usage, which was then used in a survey of UPS users.
Before the questionnaire survey was implemented, a pilot survey was
undertaken to test the effectiveness of the questionnaire. The
questionnaire for pilot survey were distributed a couple of days before
the formal questionnaire in People's Square, Jing'an Temple
and Xujiahui UPS. The questionnaire was refined and finalised based on
feedback from 20 respondents. The questionnaire targeted adults 18 years
of age or older and contained open- and close-ended questions to provide
generalised representative population data (both quantitative and
qualitative in nature) on how respondents utilised the UPS. The
questionnaire applied Almond's method (after the British traffic
engineer who devised it) as the sampling strategy to achieve a
randomised sample, with targeting by polite invitation to participate in
the survey of every second pedestrian passing by after the interviewer
had completed a questionnaire. This strategy was applied because the
pilot survey indicated that only a small proportion of pedestrians
(about one respondent in every ten pedestrians) agreed to participate in
the survey. This survey sampling strategy was the most efficient at
maximising the survey sample size, and guaranteed that the survey
sampling reflected the general usage of UPS. The survey was conducted in
January and February of 2011 face to face in three locations by the lead
researcher, which yielded 208 completed questionnaires: 145 respondents
(69.7%) on weekdays and 63 (30.3%) on weekends. The collected data were
systematically coded and arranged using Excel and SPSS for analysis.
Before the face to face questionnaires were undertaken, an
observation study was conducted of Shanghai's UPS regarding the
pedestrian systems' features, design, use, and problems as well as
inventories of activities occurring in the UPS spaces. In the final
study phase, the lead researcher conducted four face to face, detailed
qualitative, open-ended interviews to collect in-depth views, rich in
explanatory value, from several interviewees including an academic, a
coordinator of a UPS project and two UPS managers. In addition, useful
relevant information was provided from secondary published sources as a
result of searches of Shanghai's local libraries and with an
emphasis on reviewing government documents and local documents/articles
about the planning and development of the UPS. Content analysis was
conducted of these secondary sources of data and compared with findings
from a review of evidence based literature on UPS from around the world.
When taken in aggregate, the research process therefore included an
amalgam of qualitative and quantitative analytical techniques that
provide the most illuminating answers to the research questions posed in
this research. Detailed information regarding the survey instruments
that used in the questionnaires and interviews are available in the
thesis of doctoral degree of the lead author.
Data analysis
Profiles of respondents
Gender
A detailed sample profile of the 208 respondents was shown in table
3. There was an unavoidable gender bias with 55.8% of respondents being
female compared to 44.2% of male respondents. This finding possibly
reflected the attractiveness to women of shopping streets and malls
connected by the UPS.
Ages
When examined according to age, the great majority of respondents
(84.1%) were aged between 18 and 34 years. With older age cohorts, the
number of users tended to decline quite dramatically. Respondents aged
over 65 years only accounted for 0.5% of the total survey cohort.
Comparing this phenomenon to the age structure of Shanghai's
population (see table 4), it is obvious that seniors tend to be
reluctant to use UPS. This could be because of crowding problems in
central areas of Shanghai, especially in the places associated with
public transport (i.e. subways) usage, which can cause considerable
inconvenience and stress to seniors thereby reducing their travel
frequency (Deng, Nelson 2012). From observations within the UPS by the
researcher and reflection from users, it can be concluded that
facilities for the elder and disabled are very scarce within the
Shanghai UPS. Massive stairways, equivalent to climbing 3-5 storeys,
limited provision of escalators and elevators results in Shanghai's
UPS being inconvenient and difficult for the elderly and disabled.
Education level
UPS users tended to have high education levels. UPS users that
graduated from junior colleges and those that hold undergraduate degrees
are the two largest survey cohorts. The percentage of those that had a
junior college level of education or higher was 75.9% of the total
survey cohorts. When comparing the figure with the average education
level of Shanghai residents (see table 5), the phenomenon of
high-education-level-UPS-users is much more obvious.
Employment status and occupation
The UPS users were a combination of full time employees, part time
employees, retired people, students, home workers and unemployed people.
Overwhelmingly, 80% of respondents were full time employees while only
3.4% of respondents were unemployed, which is 0.9 percentage points
lower than Shanghai registered unemployed level in 2009 (Shanghai Bureau
of Statistics 2010). Students, part time employees, retired people and
home workers accounted for 6.2%, 5.8%, 3.4% and 1.4% of respondents,
respectively.
The majority of respondents' (41.4%) work related to the
commercial and service industry sectors. This was followed by
professional job holders accounting for 21.0% of respondents while
manager/administrator, clerk and other types of occupation accounted for
14.9%, 15.5% and 7.2% of respondents, respectively.
Personal income per month
With regard to income, the dominant income cohorts were in the
295-442 USD per month (24.9%) and 442-590 USD per month (26.5%)
categories. According to Shanghai Bureau of Statistics (2010), the
average monthly income of residents was 354 USD per month in 2009. But
respondents whose income was over 442 USD per month accounted for 64.5%
of the total survey cohort. Additionally, the median income obtained for
the survey was 442-590 USD per month while the median income group of
Shanghai residents was 304 USD in 2009 (Shanghai Bureau of Statistics
2010). The UPS users that participated in the survey appear to have
comparatively high income levels. The phenomenon of
high-income-UPS-users possibly reflects a high level of education
attainment and a low unemployed level, which would appear to be
associated with the youthful age cohort of users in the UPS Shanghai
survey.
[FIGURE 3 OMITTED]
UPS usage according to weather and time
Usage in different weather conditions
Respondents of Shanghai residents were asked about their
preferences of usage from three options ((1) walkways at street level,
(2) within the UPS, and (3) either), according to five weather
conditions: (1) at night, (2) raining days, (3) in the winter, (4) in
the summer, and (5) in the spring and autumn (see figure 3). Perhaps
unsurprisingly, the UPS was greatly welcomed on rainy days, in winter
and in summer. 70%-82% respondents preferred using the UPS in these
three weather conditions. But in spring and autumn, about a half of the
respondents expressed a liking for using outdoor walkways at street
level while only 14% preferred using the UPS. The result indicates the
effects of weather conditions on people's preferences for walking
environments and the inherent advantages of indoor walking environment
during inclement weather. There is an even split about the merits of UPS
usage at night when compared with using walkways at street level.
Usage in lunch time
Literature determined that UPS were welcomed by people during the
lunch time period. Since office buildings are usually connected with the
UPS, employees could eat, entertain and conduct business without going
outside of UPS (Byers 1998). As shown in figures 4 and 5, nearly half of
respondents of Shanghai residents never use the UPS during lunch time
while users that often use the UPS occupy just 10% of the total.
Approximately half of respondents used the UPS during lunch-time mainly
for the purpose of eating. The options of other choices, multiple
choices, working related and shopping applied to 18% to 10% of
respondents.
Perception on the service quality of UPS
Orientation
Regarding 'way-finding' or orientation within the UPS,
78.4% respondents believe it is easy to orient themselves while only
10.1% found it difficult and 11.5% expressed a neutral attitude. The
satisfaction level towards the ease of orientation in the UPS was high.
Safety
With regard to safety, similar results were obtained for both in
daytime and night-time. The overwhelming majority considered the UPS to
be safe (i.e. from the threat posed by physical assault). The sense of
safety was found to be better in day-time (94.2%) than at night (83.2%).
Favourite advantage(s)
The favourite advantage(s) of UPS (identified in figure 6),
indicated that approximately 28.9% of respondents opted for multiple
choices, whilst 28.9% focused on convenient transport. Respondents
selected safety from poor weather conditions (22.6%) and isolation from
automobiles (12.0%), suggesting that collectively 34.6% of respondents
were in the UPS to seek relief and refuge from a hostile outdoor urban
environment.
A few of the respondents believed that department stores, shops and
express food service are their favourite features of the UPS. By
contrast, in the Montreal UPS, users had nominated shops, indoor
environment and commercial categories as their favourite UPS features
(Boisvert 2004), which is dissimilar with that of users of the Shanghai
UPS. Although 39.4% of users in the Shanghai UPS were shoppers, the
shops and merchandise in the UPS appears to be relatively unattractive
when compared to the feature of access to convenient transport.
Improvements needed
Eleven options were presented in the questionnaire to UPS users of
Shanghai residents regarding possible improvements. The respondents were
asked about their views regarding whether or not they agreed that it was
necessary to improve the UPS by being given the following options: (1)
inconsistent opening hours; (2) entrances/exits scale; (3) design and
landscape; (4) merchandise categories; (5) cleanliness; (6) the scale of
walking corridors; (7) safety and security; (8) multiple service
functions; (9) public transport; (10) signage system; and (11)
facilities for senior and disabled people.
The majority of respondents believed that two options--facilities
for the elderly and/or disabled and orientation or
'way-finding' facilities--need to be advanced. Five
options--more entrances/exits, more walking corridors connecting to the
system, increased commercial categories, uniform opening hours in the
system and better architectural design and 'landscape'--were
viewed as unnecessary measures requiring improvement by more than half
of the respondents. There is no obvious trend towards the necessity of
improvement of the remaining four options: more service functions;
better security; more convenient public transport system; and
cleanliness.
Discussion
Social usage and equity
The usage of UPS in western countries has raised considerable
issues regarding equal usage by the general public, public space usage
and equity of usage in different time periods. One of the major
criticisms regarding grade separation pedestrian systems was that it
furthered the segregation of class and race of people in the city centre
as the walkway systems were reserved for white-collar workers and to
accommodate expensive retail establishments while poor minorities were
shifted to the street level where retail has tended to languish
(Terranova 2009). UPS were perceived to be used by wealthy people due to
the locations of many of their entrances within office buildings,
hotels, luxury stores and department stores. The pedestrian connection
patterns of UPS were perceived as delivering explicit psychological
signals to people on low and moderate incomes who were unwilling or
unable to afford goods and services in shops within the UPS.
Accordingly, separation of people by social class occurred (Robertson
1987b). This tendency of separation of people according to their
economic class was observed in Skywalk systems in Calgary and U.S.
cities (Robertson 1987b).
The Shanghai UPS users' survey (see table 3) confirmed the
phenomenon of people with high-incomes being the dominant cohort using
the UPS. However, this finding may also relate to other issues such as
inadequate facilities for elderly and disabled people within the
Shanghai UPS, resulting in the younger cohort of the population being
dominant within the UPS. The high investment in education in China in
recent years has resulted in a younger cohort of the population having a
much higher education attainment than the general population. This
dominant young cohort is largely responsible for UPS users'
characteristics being skewed towards higher income persons.
Grade separation pedestrian systems have been criticized for not
encouraging public life. Gehl (1987) outlined three levels of human
activity in public spaces, which is helpful in the evaluation of the
public space qualities of skywalks and UPS: (1) necessary or compulsory
activities, such as walking to work, shopping, or waiting for a bus; (2)
optional activities (i.e., strolling, sitting, sunbathing) chosen only
if the conditions and the place are inviting; and (3) social activities,
such as talking, people watching, and community events, which depend on
the presence of other people. According to Gehl (1987), the best
designed public spaces are those that successfully encourage the most
optional and social activities. In the cases of Cincinnati, Des Moines,
Duluth, Minneapolis and St. Paul, Skywalks were designed primarily to
accommodate pedestrian flow and convenience shopping and provide few
opportunities for sitting and people watching (Robertson 1993a). The
replacement of public amenities in such settings with fast food courts
and lottery kiosks has resulted predominantly from commercial and
security concerns (Maitland 1992). This approach to the design of
Skywalks had displaced the democratic potential of public spaces at
street level, thereby reducing the possibility for accidental
interaction between people (Daniels 2005).
The observation component of this survey research indicated that
the main activities in the public spaces of UPS such as Jing'an
underground plaza were short duration activities with a transit oriented
focus. Mid-to long-duration activities such as leisure were very rare.
Besides inadequate availability of amenities in the plaza such as
benches, water fountains, telephone booths, signs, information kiosks,
public toilets, litter baskets (Grava 2002), the phenomenon of
short-term activities, in the case of Jing'an underground plaza may
be due to the design of the plaza being poorly integrated with its
surrounding environment. Lynch (1960) indicated that a successful node
not only has to be special in some aspects, but it should epitomise its
surroundings. The design of Jing'an Plaza lacks an effective
entry/exit point to introduce pedestrians entering from street level or
nearby buildings into the underground concourse. The boundary of the
Plaza is too straightforward to be harmonized with its surroundings. The
underground concourse is also difficult for pedestrians to detect from
the immediate environment at street level.
Low utilisation of grade separation pedestrian systems for
activities other than transiting on foot have also been a significant
limitation, ultimately challenging the necessity of such systems.
Terranova (2009) criticized the absence of urban vitality of an UPS in
Dallas (U.S.) established in the 1960s, because acti vities were
restricted to the lunch period (between 11.30 a.m. and 1.30 p.m.).
Although Dallas' UPS appeared to be clean, diverse, unique and
beautiful with respect to its internal design and aesthetics, one could
question its existence given the lack of use. A similar situation had
occurred in Cincinnati where the installation of a Skywalk system was
found to be inadequate in contributing to functionality for pedestrians,
utilisation by pedestrians for purposes other than transit and the
quality of public spaces. Unlike in Minneapolis, where the severe winter
climate had resulted in high levels of pedestrian activity and
pedestrian satisfaction levels, in Cincinnati, the Skywalk became a
threatening and hostile place for pedestrians when the department stores
and other retail stores closed (Gosling 1992).
In the case of Shanghai's UPS, pedestrian activity levels did
not appear to peak at noon. This could be because Shanghai's UPS
does not have many connections with office buildings. The Shanghai UPS
development is largely based on subway stations and the design layout of
connections were determined by economic considerations and the principle
of ensuring quick evacuation of pedestrians to street level and to
commercial facilities. However, with the development of a new connection
between Jing'an Temple UPS with Park Place Shanghai (a new office
building under construction) there is now greatly improved integration
of more functions, thereby facilitating increased usage by employees.
Additionally, the basement or lower level of department stores generally
functions as food courts, although overall, food services were not the
dominant activity within Shanghai's UPS. Approximately half of
respondents used the UPS during lunch-time for the purpose of eating
because the UPS connected to food establishments or services in the
basement level of some of the department stores.
In addition, the usage of UPS appears to be influenced by the
prevailing ambient weather conditions. The usage of Shanghai's UPS
was moderate overall, but with increased usage occurring during poor
weather conditions such as during days of extreme heat or cold or when
raining. The extended operation times of the subway (normally from 5.00
a.m. to mid-night) and department stores that connected to UPS (normally
from 10.00 a.m. to 10.00 p.m.) increased the usage of UPS between 5 a.m.
and 10 p.m.
Functionality of Shanghai's UPS
Although the overall satisfaction levels towards the ease of
orientation in the Shanghai UPS was high, orientation or
'way-finding' facilities were nominated by the users as
needing further improvement. Through observation by the researchers, it
was noted that there are various orientation facilities such as an
information board, electronic signage and an electronic map. But the
problem is that the numerous entrances and connections in all directions
make it hard to distinguish specific locations or routes then relate
these to the surrounding street level environs. Added to that, unlike
the urban environment at street level, within the UPS it is difficult to
provide outstanding visual cues such as with an iconic urban design
element (i.e. a unique, highly visible building, sculpture, public open
space or townscape setting). Moreover, huge pedestrian flows can easily
result in visual confusion, particularly if a person is physically short
in stature and unable to see past the crowd around them. Perhaps then,
it is not surprising that on further considered reflection, respondents
conceded that they would like to see orientation facilities further
improved especially if there is physical expansion of the UPS.
Some of the respondents had nominated department stores, specialty
shops and express food service stores as their favourite features of the
UPS. However, overall, respondents appeared to favour access to
convenient transport over shopping and merchandise as preferred features
within the UPS. The research highlighted commercial facilities within
the UPS as having an inherent advantage of transport convenience when
compared with other non-UPS commercial areas. Notwithstanding this
finding, this advantage is offset by the lack of competitiveness of
merchandise offerings within the UPS. This may be because many of the
retailers within the UPS tend to be very small independent businesses,
whereas flagship department stores or stores with iconic brands, whilst
often located in centres linked to the UPS, were not actually within the
UPS.
However, the assessment of the functionality of the UPS suggested
that shoppers tended to have no further requirement of additional
commercial categories, particularly if they are just passing through and
shopping is not the focus of their use of the UPS. This does not mean
that the quality of merchandise available in the UPS has reached a high
level of quality and product range, because shoppers were aware of the
merchandise positioning of UPS to capture incidental impulse of buying.
In addition, there are sufficient shoppers using the UPS to confirm a
reasonable degree of success for the commercial facilities currently
within UPS, even if these businesses are small in scale with low to
moderate value consumer products and services on offer. Nevertheless,
the extent to which the UPS commercial activities rely on department
stores connected to the UPS as magnets for attracting passing trade
remains unknown.
The satisfaction level towards safety in the UPS in Shanghai was
high. UPS were perceived to be safer in daytime than at night, which was
similar with research findings for grade separation pedestrian systems
in other cities. In Cincinnati, police crime statistics demonstrated
that the Skywalk experienced less vandalism or crimes of violence than
had occurred in the commercial streets below it. Hence, perceptions of
crime were greater than the actual level of crime occurring. Users
perceived night-time to be dangerous because of a lack of activities at
night and because the groups of youths that loitered and intimidated
users of the system were perceived to be dangerous (Forusz 1980). Real
and perceived fears of crime included shoplifting, purse snatching,
package theft, and harassment of women and senior citizens by groups of
teenagers. The sense of feeling unsafe was particularly acute during
off-peak hours and on less frequented outer linkages due to the sense of
enclosure, resulting in there being less chance to be heard in raising
an alarm or in seeking out a possible escape route are limited
(Robertson 1988).
In the case of Shanghai, the possible reasons for high satisfaction
in relation to personal safety in the UPS and comparatively lower
satisfaction at night than during the day time are that firstly, the UPS
has plenty of users and hence there is a safety in numbers. Secondly,
respondents may perceive night-time to have a lower level of safety
because with the greatly reduced pedestrian activity levels, some
homeless people use the UPS as a place to sleep. In winter, the
temperature outdoors can drop to zero degrees of Celsius. The UPS indoor
environment has a comparatively comfortable temperature. Hence, when
there is adverse weather, the problem of homeless people occupying the
UPS can be quite noticeable. Research of pedestrian systems in cities of
western countries had suggested that the perception of safety by users
could be achieved through increased usage, closed circuit television for
surveillance, improved architectural design to allow for informal
surveillance by other pedestrians and police, brighter lighting levels,
improved signage, unobstructed sight lines, optimal location of police
facilities, emergency phones and the avoidance of building and landscape
configurations that allow concealment of potential criminals (Forusz
1980).
Conclusion
Increased investment and interest in UPS has occurred in response
to rapid urbanization in Shanghai. The social problems that have emerged
from rapid urbanization have provided opportunities for extending UPS
and utilizing them better. As a pioneer of UPS development of China,
Shanghai has provided an exemplar of what UPS can contribute to the
transport, economic and social life of a city's urban environment.
Crucially, this research has also uncovered issues that have restricted
expansion of Shanghai's UPS. They include:
--The phenomenon of high-income users of Shanghai's UPS. This
was evident from the majority of UPS users belonging to a young age
cohort possibly reflecting a lack of facilities for elderly and disabled
people. The design of Shanghai's UPS lacked adequate consideration
of the access needs of elderly and disabled people seeking fuller
engagement in urban life. This problem could be solved by providing
lifts to assist mobility challenged persons to move between levels with
minimal assistance.
--The failure of Shanghai's UPS to function as effective
public spaces that is facilitative of spontaneous social activities.
This has arisen as a result of a focus on commercial interests and
security concerns in UPS design and management at the expense of the
public realm.
--Underutilised use of Shanghai's UPS. Although the poor
provisioning of food retailing services in Shanghai UPS (in terms of
service being restricted to the lunchtime peak period and the limited
availability of food service establishments) contributed to
underutilisation by UPS, the extended operation time of subway and UPS
linked department stores offset this problem to some extent.
--The problem of orientation or 'way-finding' cannot be
solved through exclusive reliance on facilities such as signs and
information boards. The extension of Shanghai's UPS without
addressing this issue would create problematical underground
environments that fail to attract activities and become little more than
sterile passageways. Innovative architectural solutions that offer UPS
users the thrill of surprise and memorable public spaces and activities
that people want to visit, together with strong integration with street
level and above street level uses may offer solutions, but more research
is required to determine the best solutions for particular local
circumstances.
--Limited and unappealing merchandise categories. Optimizing
merchandise categories is necessary because the competitiveness of UPS
commerce substantially relies on its inherent advantage that being
transport convenience. Failure to address this issue in future may
constrain opportunities for future development and expansion of
Shanghai's UPS. Additionally, determining retail and commercial
strategies that achieve complementary activities instead of destructive
competition with commerce at street level is also a significant aspect
to be considered. Not only is the survival of underground commerce at
stake, but this issue potentially affects the vitality of future urban
commerce in Shanghai's city centres, and hence requires a
comprehensive response. Addressing these concerns would ensure urban
vitality and benefit the long-term development of Shanghai's UPS.
--Poor management of homeless people. This reflects a wider social
problem, which may be beyond the remit of UPS managers to resolve its
root causes. A coordinated city-wide response would be needed that
provides homeless shelters together with a compassionate UPS management
response of redirecting homeless people to appropriate social services.
Shanghai's UPS is the hallmark of a 21st century megapolis
grappling with rapid technological and social change. Furthermore,
Shanghai's UPS adds new positive dimensions to urban life as well
as adding to the efficiency of its subway system and it provides better
physical integration of access to the city's buildings. However,
UPS also permits automobile traffic to be tolerated and to co-exist with
pedestrians in city centre locations, which is not ideal from the
perspective of pedestrian amenity, safety, air quality, noise and the
quality of the public domain at street level. Through a review of
international experience on grade separation pedestrian systems and in
providing useful insights into understanding challenging issues
afflicting Shanghai's UPS, the findings of this research have
suggested how Shanghai's UPS can be improved. Addressing these
issues would result in richer, more varied public realm with greater
functionality. Without good pedestrian systems such as Shanghai's
UPS, there is a risk of abandoning the public realm of the central areas
of Chinese cities to traffic, particularly as the many of the residents
of Chinese cities race to embrace automobility.
doi: 10.3846/20297955.2012.752933
Acknowledgments
The authors thank the anonymous reviewers and the editor for their
valuable comments and suggestions.
Submitted 08 October 2012; accepted 19 November 2012
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JIANQIANG CUI
PhD Candidate of the School of Natural and Built Environments and
Barbara Hardy Institute, University of South Australia, P.O. Box 2471,
North Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia, SA 5001 Australia. E-mail:
Jianqiang.cui@mymail.unisa.edu.au
Her research interests are Urban Studies, Urban Design, Urban
Geography and Social and Environmental Impacts of Transport.
ANDREW ALLAN
Dr, Senior Lecturer of the School of Natural and Built Environments
and and Barbara Hardy Institute, University of South Australia, P.O. Box
2471, North Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia, SA 5001 Australia.
His research interests are Infrastructure Planning, Land Use
Planning and environmentally sustainable transport solutions in cities
and regions.
MICHAEL A. P. TAYLOR
Professor, School of Natural and Built Environments and Barbara
Hardy Institute, University of South Australia, P.O. Box 2471, North
Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia, SA 5001 Australia. The Emeritus
Professor of Transport Planning of the University of South Australia,
Adelaide, Australia.
DONG LIN
PhD Candidate in Urban and Regional Planning of the School of
Natural and Built Environments and Barbara Hardy Institute, University
of South Australia, P.O. Box 2471, North Terrace, Adelaide, South
Australia, SA 5001 Australia.
His research interests are Economic Geography, Urban and Regional
Studies, as well as Social Inclusion and Transport.
Jianqiang Cui (1), Andrew Allan (2), Michael A. P. Taylor (3), Dong
Lin (4)
School of Natural and Built Environments and Barbara Hardy
Institute, University of South Australia, P. O. Box 2471, North Terrace,
Adelaide, South Australia, SA 5001 Australia E-mail: (1)
Jianqiang.cui@mymail.unisa.edu.au (corresponding author)
Table 1. Buildings and spaces connected to People's Square,
Jing'an Temple and Xujiahui UPS
Building/Space People's Square Jing'an Temple
Underground Line 1 Station; Line 2 Station;
Railway Station Line 2 Station; Line 7 Station.
Line 8 Station.
Department Store/ New World Shopping Jiu Guang Department
Shopping Mall Center; Store
Connecting with UPS Raffliers Plaza.
Underground Dimei Shopping Mall Email Fashion Plaza
Shopping Mall
Underground Hong Kong Street Retailing Shops
Shopping Street/ (300 m in length);
Retailing Shop Shanghai 1930 Street;
Huasheng Street;
Retailing Shops.
Temple/Park/ People' Square; Jing'an Temple;
Square/Atrium People's Park; Jing'an Square
Underground Atrium; (Underground Concourse,
Underground 3,000 [m.sup.2]);
Concourse Jing'an Park.
(12,000 [m.sup.2]).
Other Building Shanghai Urban Shanghai Airport City
Connecting to UPS Planning Exhibition Terminal; Park Place
Center Shanghai
(constructing).
Underground Underground walkways
Walkway to Jiang'an
Temple Public
Transportation
Interchange (255 m in
length); Huashan Road
Underground Walkway
(about 50 m in
length); Jing'an
Temple Underpass
(21 m in length).
Building/Space Xujiahui
Underground Line 1 Station;
Railway Station Line 9 Station.
Department Store/ Oriental Department
Shopping Mall Store;
Connecting with UPS Pacific Department Store;
Metro City;
Grand Gateway Plaza;
Pacific Digital Plaza II;
Buynow.
Underground
Shopping Mall
Underground Retailing Shops
Shopping Street/
Retailing Shop
Temple/Park/
Square/Atrium
Other Building
Connecting to UPS
Underground Shanghai Metro Culture
Walkway and Art Walkway (about 350 m in length)
Table 2. Arrangement of entrances and exits of Shanghai three UPS
Entrance/
Exit
Number People's Square
1 Street level
2 Street level
3 Street level
4 N/A
5 Underground concourse
6 Underground concourse
7 Department store & Underground concourse
8 Street level
9 Street level
10 Street level
11 Street level
12 Department store & Street level
13 N/A
14 Street level
15 Department store & Street level
16 Street level
17 Underground concourse
18 Street level
19 Underground concourse
20 Street level
Entrance/
Exit Towards
Number Jing'an Temple Xujiahui
1 Street level Street level
2 Department store Street level
3 Street level Street level
4 Street level Digital store & Street level
5 Underground concourse Digital store & Street level
6 N/A N/A
7 N/A Street level
8 N/A Street level
9 Street level Shopping mall & Street level
10 Street level Digital store & Street level
11 N/A Department store & Street level
12 N/A Shopping mall & Street level
13 N/A Department store & Street level
14 N/A Street level
15 N/A Street level
16 N/A Street level
17 N/A Street level
18 N/A Street level
19 N/A N/A
20 N/A N/A
Table 3. Detailed profiles of UPS users in the Shanghai UPS
survey
Respondents % of Total
Total 208 100%
Gender
Male 92 44.2%
Female 116 55.8%
Age
18-24 years 67 32.2%
25-34 years 108 51.9%
35-44 years 16 7.7%
45-54 years 9 4.3%
55-64 years 7 3.4%
65+ years 1 0.5%
Highest level of education
Primary School 1 0.5%
Junior School 10 4.8%
Senior School/Secondary Professional School 39 18.8%
Junior College 60 28.8%
Undergraduate Degree 88 42.3%
Postgraduate Degree 10 4.8%
Employment status
Full time employment 166 79.8%
Part time employment 12 5.8%
Retired 7 3.4%
Students 13 6.2%
Home worker 3 1.4%
Unemployed 7 3.4%
Type of occupation
Manager/administrator 27 14.9%
Professional 38 21.0%
Clerk 28 15.5%
Commercial and service people 75 41.4%
Other 13 7.2%
Personal income per month
Up to 1,000 Yuan (up to 147 USD) 1 0.5%
1,000-2,000 Yuan (147-295 USD) 19 10.1%
2,000-3,000 Yuan (295-442 USD) 47 24.9%
3,000-4,000 Yuan (442-590 USD) 50 26.5%
4,000-5,000 Yuan (590-737 USD) 26 13.8%
5,000-6,000 Yuan (737-884USD) 12 6.3%
6,000-7,000 Yuan (884-1,032 USD) 7 3.7%
7,000-8,000 Yuan (1,032-1,179 USD) 8 4.2%
8,000-9,000 Yuan (1,179-1,326 USD) 2 1.0%
9,000-10,000 Yuan (1,326-1,474 USD) 1 0.5%
Over 10,000 Yuan (Over 1,474 USD) 16 8.5%
Note: Exchange rates from Chinese Yuan to USD is 6.7852 in 2010
(Central Intelligence Agency, 2010)
Table 4. Age proportion of Shanghai residents (2009)
Up to 18 18-34 35-59 Over 60
Percentage 10.4% 24.1% 43.0% 22.5%
Sources: the authors, edited from Shanghai
Bureau of Statistics, 2010.
Table 5. Proportion of education level of Shanghai residents (2010)
Illiterate Primary Junior
(Over 15 years old) School School
Percentage 2.7% 13.5% 36.5%
Senior Junior College,
School Undergraduate Degree
and Above
Percentage 21.0% 22.0%
Sources: the authors, edited from Shanghai Bureau of Statistics, 2011.
Fig. 1. Shanghai populations (2000-2009, million). Source:
the authors, edited from Shanghai Bureau of Statistics, 2010.
2000 16.1
2001 16.1
2002 16.3
2003 17.1
2004 17.4
2005 17.8
2006 18.2
2007 18.6
2008 18.9
2009 19.2
Note: Table made from line graph.
Fig. 4. UPS usage frequencies during the lunch-time period
(11.30am-1.30pm) (N = 182)
Often 7.7%
Occasionally 28.6%
Rarely 15.4%
Never 46.1%
Very Often 2.2%
Note: Table made from pie chart.
Fig. 5. Purposes of uPS usage during the lunch-time period
(11.30am-1.30pm) (n = 182)
Eating 47.0%
Shopping 10.2%
Working Related 12.2%
Other 18.4%
Mutiple Choice 12.2%
Note: Table made from pie chart.
Fig. 6. Most favourite advantage(s) of the uPS (n = 208)
Safe from Poor 22.6%
Weather Conditions
Convenient Transport 28.9%
Without Disturbance 12.0%
from Automobiles
Shops and Express 1.9%
Food
Department 3.8%
Stores
Other 1.9%
Multiple Choices 28.9%
Note: Table made from pie chart.
