The first lady reconsidered: presidential partner and political institution.

Watson, Robert P.

It is sad and telling that the press and public alike are unaware that

Presidential wives since Abigail Adams have been wielding political

influence.

Edith Mayo, Director Smithsonian First Ladies Exhibit

Being first lady requires a woman to act ... as a mixture of queen, club

woman, and starlet. I

Lewis L. Gould, presidential scholar

The president's spouse has the potential to become an important

component of the contemporary presidency.

George Edwards and Stephen J. Wayne Presidential Leadership: Politics and Policy Making

A Case for the Study of the First Lady

She is widely considered to be one of the most powerful people in Washington, yet we know little about her responsibilities or her predecessors. Her name has routinely appeared atop the annual Gallup poll of America's most admired women in the world, but there exists little systematic study of what she has done to deserve this attention. It could be argued that she is the second most powerful person in the world, even though some scholars dismiss the effort to formalize a field of study of her as "trivial" or unworthy of serious academic attention. However, recent scholarship on the matter is beginning to reverse long-standing assumptions about her and is raising some provocative and important questions.(1) Yet, many of these questions remain largely unexamined yet alone answered. Indeed, she is the missing link in our study of the presidency and a strong case exists for formal study of the unknown institution" of the office of the president: the first lady.(2)

Scholarship over the past decade on the first lady reveals that many White House wives have had considerable influence on their husband's careers, decisions, and policies.(3) Considering the social forces limiting a woman's involvement in politics and influence in society and the fact that women could not even vote until 1920, the political activism and influence of several pre-twentieth century first ladies is remarkable. In fact, a new view of an "activist political partner" is emerging as possibly the rule rather than the exception for the female occupants of the White House.(4) There appear to be several reasons for the recent interest. In addition to the books written during the late 1980s--which are both reflective of the new interest and serve to further interest in the subject--there were several high-profile conferences organized or chaired by important women such as Betty Ford and Nancy Reagan. For example, in April 1984 there was a meeting at the Gerald R. Ford Museum in Grand Rapids, Michigan, dedicated to the exploration of the lives and roles of first ladies. The controversy that surrounded Nancy Reagan because of her expensive and extravagant lifestyle and perceived influence over, and control of, President Reagan caused the media, general public, and politicians to question the nature of the role and extent of influence of the first lady.(5) Another factor which piqued the interest in first ladies was the availability of primary source material for studying the first ladies. More presidential libraries opened their holdings of the first lady's papers and White House social files.(6) More recently, the open advisory role played by Hillary Rodham Clinton and the fact that she has an office in the West Wing of the White House have produced criticism and public debate over the "proper" role of the first lady.

On one hand, the first lady is deserving of study simply because the institution has been a part of the presidency since the founding of the nation. Most presidents, after all, have been married and most of them have had their partner with them while serving in the White House. Only two bachelors were elected to the presidency: James Buchanan and Grover Cleveland, the latter marrying while in the White House. Only a few presidents have occupied the White House without their spouses. For example, both Ellen Arthur and Rachel Jackson died shortly before their husbands' presidencies, Ellen Arthur just prior to Chester A. Arthur's vice presidency and Jackson in the interim between election and inauguration. Martin Van Buren and Thomas Jefferson lost their wives well before their White House days and the wives of Benjamin Harrison, John Tyler, and Woodrow Wilson died during their presidencies. However, Wilson and Tyler remarried before leaving the White House.

The presidency can be viewed as a "team."(7) The various presidential advisers and institutions of the White House form this team. So too must the first lady be included within the "plural presidency." Not only is her office budget and staff larger than many of the so-called "key" advisers and institutions that presidential scholars study, but as presidential spouse she assumes a role perhaps more central to the president's career and White House success than any formal adviser. This influence a spouse might have should be no surprise to anyone who is married and can be seen in the presidency.(8) As such, presidential scholar Gil Troy, in his book Affairs of State, examines the presidency from the perspective of the character of the presidential marriage.(9) The president's character, beliefs on the family, and commitment to women's issues might be examined through his relationship with his wife, as should her symbolic role shaping or reflecting society's shifting views on womanhood and gender.(10)

Scholarly study is also necessary because the reality of the matter is that the public persona and roles of the first lady have become an institution of the presidency, the American political system, and, in a larger sense, American society. There has been recent scholarly attention devoted to the first lady, led by such well-respected scholars as Lewis L. Gould, but there is a need for a more formalized, systematic approach to the subject.(11) Generally, first ladies have been relegated to a footnote in history. The only roles even conceptualized for the first lady prior to this century have been those of ceremonial White House hostess and the quiet "good wife."(12) Even today, some studies and books on the topic, several of which have amounted to little more than society gossip and a social interest in her marriage, children, and hostessing talents, have not envisioned a role beyond that of wife and hostess. Additionally, despite the fact that there have been several "activist political partners" as first ladies, whenever a first lady such as Rosalynn Carter or Hillary Clinton shows such characteristics, the press, public, and biographers speak of her as "non-traditional" or as breaking new ground by taking an "unprecedented" interest in politics and the issues.(13)

The State, of First Lady/Presidential Spouse Scholarship

Until recently, the American public and scholars knew little about early first ladies, the significant contributions they made to individual presidents and the office of the presidency, or the institution of the first lady itself Scholars have noted that there exists, for instance, no "tightly argued thesis" or scholarly theories and models on the first lady.(14) No framework exists to guide scholarly research on the subject although arguments have been made to formalize a field of study of the institution.(15) Much of the study of the subject does not attempt to place the first lady into the larger context of the history of women or the institution of the presidency.(16)

Most of the writings completed prior to 1980 are anecdotal in nature, focusing on childhood stories and marriage, and are limited to the first lady's role as wife and mother and her social hostessing in the White House.(17) More disturbingly, a look at the voluminous literature base on the presidency reveals that the first lady has been completely ignored in presidential scholarship. Rarely is she even mentioned, let alone considered as a worthy or useful topic of study. Despite the many approaches to the study of the presidency--legal, institutional, political power, relations with Congress, character, and so on--not one considers the president's partner. Even presidential character studies, which draw on the social backgrounds of the presidents, fall to significantly discuss the influence of the president's wife and lifelong partner.(18) This neglect is true in the leading textbooks on the president, where to the reader it would appear that there never even was such an individual or institution as the first lady. The vast majority of the textbooks describe "important" institutions, advisers, and staff within the White House or Executive Office of the President, yet omit even reference to the first lady whose influence, official budget, and staff often greatly exceed that of "important" institutions. For example, even a cursory review of presidential textbooks reveals that the first lady is rarely mentioned or even listed in the indexes. This is the case in textbooks for college courses on the president, scholarly books and studies, books about the presidency on the popular market, and collector's and reference books on the topic including such important books as Barber's The Presidential Character, Watson and Thomas's The Politics of the Presidency, Edwards and Wayne's Presidential Leadership, Pfiffner's The Modern Presidency, and many others as well as older texts like Koenig's The Chief Executive and Corwin's The President. Only rarely will a book include a paragraph under the heading "The President's Spouse."(19) Considering the omission of even a basic reference to the first ladies in major textbooks and other books, it appears that the topic lacks systematic study and, with the exception of the recent books by Lewis Gould and Gil Troy,(20) it is largely ignored in mainstream presidential scholarship and instruction.

As the most influential and scrutinized woman in America, the first lady also functions as sort of a barometer of the status of women in society and our shifting views of womanhood.(21) Her roles, political activities, and treatment by the press and public reflect the status of women and societal expectations toward women throughout American history.(22) The study of the history of women in America can be furthered through the study of the first lady, a topic rich in documentation.(23) As first lady, the women of the White House have left behind much written material, letters, and documentation of their lives.

It is wrong to assume that scholarly study of the first ladies should be limited to that of the post-1933 or "Eleanor Roosevelt era." Several first ladies prior to Eleanor Roosevelt were active and influential in their husbands' administrations. This includes, for example, Florence Harding, Helen Taft, Dolley Madison, and Abigail Adams. Nor should the formal study of the first lady ignore the historical development of the institution of first lady. The "first ladyship" has had a unique history and the present state of the institution can be better understood by considering the precedents and customs established by previous first ladies.(24)

The move to formalize the study of the first lady by Betty Boyd Caroli, Lewis Gould, and others faces resistance by some scholars who perceive the subJect as trivial and not a legitimate scholarly endeavor. It has been dismissed as a source of gossip and celebrity and little more.(25) This view is shared by parts of the American public who see the office as a waste of taxpayer money. Similarly, a feminist critique calls for the elimination of the first ladyship all together.(26)

Additionally, the study of the first lady faces the same problem as that of presidential scholarship; the field has a small number of cases with wide variance among the cases. It is conceivable that about the only thing the first ladies have in common is that they were all married to the president. However, there appear to be some generic pressures, experiences, and activities common to all first ladies. Such research should consider those persons who served in the capacity of White House social host but were not technically first ladies, such as Harriet Lane, the niece of bachelor James Buchanan and Andrew Jackson's daughter-in-law, Sarah York Jackson, who served in place of the deceased Rachel Jackson. Also, such research should not be disassociated with presidential scholarship, as the office of first lady reflects the pressures on the president and the two fields can inform one another.(27) An example of this may be the decline in the public presence of the first lady corresponding to the deterioration of the post-Civil War presidency. Further research on the first lady may clarify such possible relationships. Scholarly research is needed in several areas including: assessing the first ladies' political and public activities, roles, and influence; identifying and classifying the various "types" of first ladies or their approaches to the office; identifying and classifying the determinants of success as first lady; understanding the historical development of the office; and assessing any possible linkages of the presidential marriage with the approach to the presidency and presidential job performance. And finally, such scholarship should advocate the use of, and approach the topic from the perspective of, the term "first spouse" or "presidential spouse."

Conceptual Approaches for the Study of the First Lady

There is a need to develop theories and models to guide scholarly study of the first lady. A conceptual framework for this is presented in three parts. The first chronicles the historical development of the institution of the first lady. The second one conceptualizes the nature of the first ladies political activity. The third conceptualizes the influence which first ladies can have on the presidency and American political system.

Historical Development of the Institution of Presidential Spouse

Perhaps the first ladies have had little in common beyond being married to the president (or associated with him, as is the case of "proxy" first ladies, known as "mistress of the White House"). Then again, perhaps it is possible to identify some commonalties. One such commonality might be a shared approach to the office that can be categorized by historical period. Six distinct periods in the historical development of the institution of the first lady are identified (see Table One). This model is not without exception, in that some first ladies better fit the historical periods than others and the development of the institution has not been linear or completely consistent. However, such a model as this offers the field a beginning point by which to study the institution. The occupants of the office of first lady in each historical period tend to exhibit some common institutional approaches, roles, and responsibilities. The model invites further testing of such hypotheses as: Has the expansion of the first ladyship paralleled the growth of the presidency? Has the history of the institution been important in shaping the modern office? Do the first ladies reflect the time and pressures during the years they are in the White House or do they reflect the time period of their upbringing?

TABLE ONE
Historical Development of the Institution of First Lady

Years Historical Period

1889-1817 First spouses: shaping the image and role
1817-1869 Absent spouses: idled by illness and death
1869-1909 Transitional spouses: unfulfilled possibilities
1909-1945 Aspiring spouses: developing new roles
1945-1974 Supportive spouses: model wives in the public era
1974-1996 Modern spouses: public presidential partners

First Spouses: Shaping the Image and Role (1789-1817)

1789-1797 Martha Dandridge Custis Washington
1797-1801 Abigail Smith Adams
1801-1809(*) Martha Wayles Skelton Jefferson (decreased)
 Martha "Patsy" Jefferson. Randolph (daughter)
 Dolley Payne Todd Madison
 (wife of Secretary of State James Madison)
1809-1817 Dolley Payne Todd Madison

(*) Indicates when the first lady was unable to serve.

The first first ladies had no blueprint to follow in defining a role and identity for themselves and for their office. Yet, they shaped the institution as that of a public ceremonial office that was responsible for social functions and hosting formal affairs of state. The institution emerged as a highly visible one. While the institution evolved in an apolitical and unofficial capacity with respect to political and public affairs, these first ladies did forge a role as confidante and informal adviser to the president on political matters.(28) This was especially true of Abigail Adams, an articulate, intelligent, and assertive life-long counsel to her husband, and Dolley Madison, who was quite politically astute. Others like Martha Washington were not only less active politically, but also avoided the public eye. Whereas spouses such as Dolley Madison attracted and celebrated it. Martha Jefferson died years prior to her husband's presidency and little is known about her or their relationship.

While Martha Washington and Abigail Adams were intensely private individuals, they were, however, greatly admired, widely known, and were competent, respected hosts. Dolley Madison remains as one of the most popular and successful first ladies. She was known as a charming, capable host, one whose presence in and around the capitol was felt for many years.

Absent Spouses: Idled by Illness and Death (1817-1869)

1817-1825 Elizabeth Kortright Monroe
1825-1829 Louisa Catherine Johnson Adams
1829-1837(*) Rachel Donelson Jackson (deceased)
 Emily Donelson (Rachel's Donelson Jackson's niece)
 Sarah Yorke Jackson (wife of adopted son Andrew)
1837-1841(*) Hannah Hoes Van Buren (deceased)
 Angelica Singleton Van Buren (daughter-in-law)
1841(*) Anna Tuthill Symmes Harrison (too ill to move to
 Capitol from Ohio home)
 Jane Irwin Harrison (widow of Harrison's son)
1841-1845(*) Letitia Christian Tyler (invalid, White House day
 spent in seclusion, dies 1842)
 Priscilla Cooper Tyler (daughter-in-law)
 Julia Gardiner Tyler (marries John Tyler in 1944)
1845-1849 Sarah Childress Polk
1849-1850(*) Margaret "Peggy" Mackall Smith Taylor (semi-invalid)
 Betty Taylor Bliss (daughter)
1850-1853(*) Abigail Powers Fillmore (poor health)
 Mary "Abby" Abigail Fillmore (daughter)
1853-1857(*) Jane Means Appleton Pierce (in mourning/death of son)
 Abigail Kent Means (Aunt and friend of Jane Pierce)
1857-1861 Harriet Lane (Buchanan's niece)
1861-1865 Mary Todd Lincoln
1865-1869(*) Eliza McCardle Johnson (poor health)
 Martha Johnson Patterson (daughter)

(*) Indicates when the first lady was unable to serve.

The first ladies of this period were, as a group, less influential and less active both politically and in terms of social hostessing. The roles and responsibilities of the first lady during this period were not expanded and the institution was much less visible. This appears to parallel the status of the presidency. The first ladies themselves were art of the reason for this inactivity, in that they tended to be of a different temperament and had different approaches to their offices than later, more active first ladies.

Another reason for this inactivity is implied in the name given to this second period. Many of the first ladies were in poor health during their years in the White House, which limited their activity. Others died prior to their husbands' presidencies and substitutes, typically young female relatives, served as "lady of the White House" or "mistress" in their place. For example, Rachel Jackson and Hannah Van Buren died prior to their husbands' presidencies. Letitia Tyler had a stroke prior to the Tyler presidency and she was too ill to fulfill her expected duties before dying only a year into her husband's term. Several of the first ladies of this period including Elizabeth Monroe, Margaret Taylor, Abigail Fillmore, and Eliza Johnson were rather active and influential partners in their marriages(29) but spent part of their White House days limited by serious illness. Anna Harrison never even made it to the capital city, as she was too sick to accompany her husband to his inaugural. He died before she fully recovered. During and just prior to their White House years, both Mary Todd Lincoln and Jane Pierce experienced the loss of several loved ones very close to them and spent time in mourning. This was more troubling for Jane Pierce, who was so distraught that she rarely even made public appearances.

The exceptions of the period include Sarah Polk and Harriet Lane. Both enjoyed good health and were active while in the White House. Polk was also atypical in that she was an active, political presence in her husband's career and public life.

Transitional Spouses: Unfulfilled Possibilities (1869-1909)

1869-1877 Julia Dent Grant
1877-1881 Lucy Ware Webb Hayes
1881 Lucretia Rudolph Garfield
1881-1885(*) Ellen Lewis Herndon Arthur (deceased)
 Mary Arthur McElroy (Arthur's younger sister)
1885-1886 Pose Elizabeth Cleveland (bachelor Cleveland's
 sister)
1886-1889 Frances Folsom Cleveland (married Grover
 Cleveland in 1886)
1889-1893(*) Caroline Lavinia Scott Harrison (dies in 1892)
 Mary Harrison McKee (daughter)
1893-1897 Frances Folsom Cleveland
1897-1901 Ida Saxton McKinley
1901-1909 Edith Kermit Carow Roosevelt

(*) Indicates when the first lady was unable to serve.

The "Transitional Spouses" were generally well educated for their time and many were intellectually and socially gifted women. They held out the promise of a new age and of a new woman in the White House and for American society. However, while they were generally more active and influential than their predecessors in the second historical period, this promise was not to be fulfilled in terms of asserting their own identities, forging new facets of the institution of first lady, and contributing to the presidency. The first ladies of this period fell short of their potential. For example, Lucy Hayes was an intelligent, college educated woman who had even written essays in college supportive of women's liberation. However, as first lady she attempted and contributed little and was discouraged from activism by her husband. Lucretia Garfield was well read and was an influence on her husband's life, but as first lady she was limited by poor health.

The first ladies of this period were, however, generally a well liked, capable, and intelligent group. Considering the less than spectacular presidents of this era, it would seem that, as a group, the women of the White House were more competent in their respectful tasks than the men of the White House. They were also more visible and active than their predecessors.

Aspiring Spouses: Developing New Roles (1909-1945)

1909-1913 Helen Herron Taft
1913-1921(*) Ellen Louise Axson Wilson (dies in 1914)
 Margaret Wilson (daughter)
 Edith Bolling Galt Wilson (marries Woodrow in 1915)

1921-1923 Florence Kling Harding
1923-1929 Grace Anna Goddhue Coolidge
1929-1933 Lou Henry Hoover
1933-1945 Anna Eleanor Roosevelt

(*) Indicates when the first lady was unable to serve.

The first ladies of the early twentieth century forged new roles for the institution.(30) The foundation for the modern first lady as an active presidential partner was set during this period. For example, Helen Taft and Florence Harding were highly ambitious, determined, and liberated women and were significant factors behind their husbands' careers. Both of them were also active as campaigners, speech writers, and advisers. Edith Wilson functioned with an unprecedented amount of power for the president during the many months of his dehabilitating stroke. A Stanford geology graduate, Lou Hoover travelled around the world with her husband, translating for him, contributing to a textbook he wrote, and serving in all capacities as his adviser and partner.

This is also the period of Eleanor Roosevelt, still the standard by which all first ladies are measured. Eleanor's political and social activism, independence, public speaking, and writing career are without equal. Her White House years did more to change the institution of first lady than perhaps any other single person, event, or historical period.(31) The sole exception to this period is Grace Coolidge, who despite her social skills, appears to have been severely limited in her public life and functions by her stodgy and overly prudent husband.

Supportive Spouses: Model Wives in the Public Era (1945-1974)

1945-1953 Elizabeth "Bess" Virginia Wallace Truman
1953-1961 Mamie Geneva Doud Eisenhower
1961-1963 Jacqueline Lee Bouvier Kennedy
1963-1969 Claudia Taylor "Lady Bird" Johnson
1969-1974 Patricia Ryan Nixon

In the post-Eleanor Roosevelt era, despite the precedents established and opportunities present for ambitious first ladies, this period appears to be defined by tradition and convention. Also, the first ladies of this period approached the White House with different mindsets than their predecessors. For example, Bess Truman and Jackie Kennedy were extremely private individuals who were not enthusiastic about the public nature of the job.(32) Pat Nixon and Lady Bird Johnson were often limited by controlling husbands. Mamie Eisenhower appears not to have had the social skills, or disposition necessary for the new partnership dimension of the institution.(33)

With the advent of television and the mass media culture, the institution became much more public in this time period. As such, the first ladies became a part of the public element of the modern presidency and campaigning in America. The first ladies of this period were the first to experience this new public dimension to the presidency. The public persona of the first lady during this period tended to be that of supportive wife. As individuals, they were not as active or influential as the group serving before or after them, nor did they define themselves as individuals to the extent of other groups. Lady Bird Johnson, however, did achieve notoriety and success with her beautification and conservation initiatives and, as an active partner, she is the exception to this period.

Modern Spouses: Public Presidential Partners (1974-present)

1974-1976 Elizabeth Bloomer Ford
1976-1981 Rosalynn Smith Carter
1981-1989 Nancy Davis Reagan
1989-1993 Barbara Pierce Bush
1993- Hillary Rodham Clinton

The modern first lady has emerged as an active and public partner of the president. Her influence is felt not only in the president's personal and social life, but in his public life and political career as well. The first lady has become a highly visible and influential force in the White House. While the first lady has certainly not achieved what could be seen as co-equal status as a partner--at least in the public's eye--she often functions much as an "associate president.'" This is the period of Rosalynn Carter and Hillary Clinton, first ladies who attend cabinet meetings, head policy task forces, and have offices near to the action of government.

Modern first ladies are expected to have an interest in politics and the presidency. They are expected to campaign and to advocate or champion social causes and adopt their own pet project. It is becoming the rule and not the exception that the first lady has surpassed the vice president and even the most senior advisers and cabinet secretaries in terms of visibility and perhaps even power and influence both in and out of the White House.(34)

Political Activism of Presidential Spouses

Pet Projects. Recent first ladies have been expected to champion a pet project. Although some of these projects are socially oriented and purposely selected to be safe politically, they are nevertheless important and influential national crusades.(35) These projects provide a voice nationally for important issues and have been used as an instrument of positive media and public relations for the White House.(36) Examples of such projects include Nancy Reagan's "Just say no" anti-drug campaign and Barbara Bush's work on behalf of literacy.

Substantive Policy Issues. A few first ladies have chaired task forces or commissions, traveled or spoken on behalf of the president, and were responsible for developing public policy. Ellen Wilson's urban housing bill, Rosalynn Carter's leadership on mental health, and Hillary Clinton's health care reform proposals are a few examples. Eleanor Roosevelt served in a formal capacity for the president in many areas from her appointed position in civil defense to prison and hospital reform to civil rights initiatives.

Such activism in substantive policy issues has, at times, resulted in the office serving as something of a political lightning rod. However, the first lady has, at other times, served as a key player in the policy process.

Political Support. Several first ladies have demonstrated an impressive grasp of things political and functioned as the president's most trusted political confidante. Others were assets on the campaign trail and with public opinion. Jackie Kennedy and Barbara Bush, for example, were very popular first ladies, whose popularity possibly boosted the president's own popularity. While many presidents relied on the political advice of their wives, it appears that first ladies such as Abigail Adams, Helen Taft, Florence Harding, Eleanor Roosevelt, Rosalynn Carter, and Hillary Clinton were full political partners, who appeared to function as their husband's most trusted adviser on major political decisions.

Ceremonial and Social Functions. Due to the public visibility and nature of many of the ceremonial and hosting tasks the first lady performs, these functions assume a highly political dimension.(37) Many of the ceremonies are in fact political events and affairs of the state such as receptions for foreign dignitaries and political VIPs. In the modern, televised age, many of these functions are watched or followed by a large audience of voters. Among the first ladies who were successful hosts from a political perspective include Julia Grant, who received many celebrities, the politically savy Dolley Madison, and Jackie Kennedy, whose events brought arts and culture to the White House.

Influence of Presidential Spouses

Political Influence. The political sphere of influence encompasses the more formal activities of politics such as speech writing and editing, policy advising and advocacy, lobbying, selecting or endorsing presidential appointments, and campaigning. Here, it is important to distinguish between influence and power. The first ladies' influence is through these formal political activities and can be on the president, presidential staff, or on the public. Several first ladies appear to have been highly influential forces in the politics and policy decisions of the White House including Sarah Polk, Helen Taft, Florence Harding, Eleanor Roosevelt, Rosalynn Carter, and Hillary Clinton.

"Pillow" Influence. This apolitical and Informal sphere of influence, on the other hand, includes behind-the-scenes influence that might come simply from being the president's partner, lover, and confidante.(38) Here, the home and family life, social interests, and moral beliefs of the first ladies have influenced the president.(39) This type of influence probably cannot be measured but should not be ignored by scholars studying the presidential spouses or the presidency. Some of the first ladies who were especially influential in the president's life as full partners include Abigail Adams, Dolley Madison, Hannah Van Buren, Sarah Polk, Abigail Fillmore, Eliza Johnson, Lucretia Garfield, Ellen Arthur, Ida McKinley, Edith Roosevelt, Helen Taft, Florence Harding, Lou Hoover, Eleanor Roosevelt, Bess Truman, Rosalynn Carter, Nancy Reagan, and Hillary Clinton.

Public Influence. Many first ladies have been among the most well known and popular Americans of their time.(40) The first lady is a highly public institution, one that possibly both reflects and shapes societal attitudes toward women.(41) First ladies, in their formal capacity, have hosted foreign dignitaries and entertained visitors to the White House, campaigned for their husbands and for causes they support, they have traveled around the nation and world, and they have written or spoken to large audiences of people. As such, the institution has the potential to shape public opinion on many issues, politics, and the presidency. Some of the most well known and influential first ladies in American public life--possibly the best known women of their day and age--include Martha Washington, Dolley Madison, Elizabeth Monroe, Mary Todd Lincoln, Julia Grant, Frances Cleveland, Edith Roosevelt, Edith Wilson, Lou Hoover, Eleanor Roosevelt, Jackie Kennedy, Lady Bird Johnson, Betty Ford, Nancy Reagan, and Hillary Clinton.

The Future of Presidential Spouse Scholarship

The future of scholarship on the president's spouse looks promising. After the expanded interest in the first ladies in the 1980s and the increased availability of White House social files and the first ladies' personal papers in presidential libraries, the field of study has moved slightly closer to gaining acceptance and credibility in the academic community generally and, more specifically, among presidential historians and political scientists.(42) However, the field still suffers from a lack of formalization. What is needed is the development of theories and models to permit: (1) a more systematic approach to the study of the first lady; (2) a better understanding of the institution, roles, political contributions, and public expectations of the first lady; and (3) the incorporation of first lady studies into the mainstream field of presidential scholarship.

Comparative studies of the international experience with spouses of political leaders would yield a greater understanding of how different cultures treat the spouses of their leaders and powerful or public women. Comparative studies of the different historical experiences of first ladies would provide insights into the evolution of the status of women in different times and eras. The role and place of political spouses in general will benefit from the formalization of the study of the first lady. Moreover, a greater appreciation of the challenges faced by first ladies and their numerous contributions to their husbands' careers, the institution of the presidency, and the country will result from the formal, systematic study of America's first ladies. As such, a more accurate assessment of the institution of the presidency and the history of women in America will emerge.

Notes

(1.) Allida M. Black, Casting Her Own Shadow: Eleanor Roosevelt and the Shaping of Postwar Liberalism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996); Gil Troy, Affairs of State: The Rise and Rejection of the Presidential Couple Since World War II (New York: The Free Press, 1997).

(2.) R. Gordon Hoxie, "About this Issue," Presidential Studies Quarterly 20, no. 4 (Fall 1990): 672-5.

(3.) Alice E. Anderson and Hadley V. Baxendale, Behind Every Successful President: The Hidden Power and Influence of America's First Ladies (New York: Shapolsky Publishers, 1992); Carl Sferrazza Anthony, "First Ladies, Third Degree: Hillary Clinton's Predecessors in the Hot Seat," Washington Post, March 24, 1994, C1, C8; Betty Boyd Caroli, First Ladies (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); Lewis L. Gould, American First Ladies: Their Lives and Legacies (New York: Garland Press, 1996); Lewis L. Gould, "Modern First Ladies and the Presidency," Presidential Studies Quarterly 20, no. 4 (Fall 1990): 677-83; Lewis L. Gould, "First Ladies," The American Scholar 55 (Autumn 1986): 528-35; Myra G. Gutin, The President's Partner: The First Lady in The Twentieth Century (New York: Greenwood Press, 1989); Edith Mayo, "The Influence and Power of First Ladies," Chronicle of Higher Education, September 15, 1993, A52; Troy, Affairs of State.

(4.) Carl Sferrazza Anthony, "Skirting the Issue: First Ladies and African Americans," American Visions 7 (1992): 28-32; Gould, American First Ladies; Mary C. Ryan and Nancy Kegan Smith, Modern First Ladies: Their Documentary Legacy (Washington, D.C.: National Archives Records Administration, 1989); Betty Houchin Winfield, "Madame President: Understanding a New Kind of First Lady," Media Studies Journal 8 (1994): 59-71.

(5.) Bernard A. Weisberger, "Petticoat Government: First Ladies Have Been Under Fire Ever Since Albert Gallatin Called Abigail Adams, "Mrs. President," American Heritage 44 (1993): 18-20.

(6.) Ryan and Smith, Modern First Ladies.

(7.) Troy, Affairs of State.

(8.) Winfield, "Madame President," pp. 59-71.

(9.) Troy, Affairs of State.

(10.) Gould, American First Ladies; Gould, "Modern First Ladies," pp. 677-83; Troy, Affairs of State.

(11.) Carl Sferrazza Anthony, First Ladies: The Saga of the President's Wives and their Power, 1789-1961 (New York: William Morrow, 1990); Caroli, First Ladies; Hoxie, "About this Issue," pp. 672-3; "Public Portraits of First Ladies," Public Opinion (March-April 1989): 37-9. Troy, Affairs of State.

(12.) Caroli, First Ladies; Gould, "First Ladies," pp. 528-35; Winfield, "Madame President," pp. 59-71.

(13.) Carl Sferrazza Anthony, "First Ladylike, After All: Hillary's Merely the Latest in a Long Line of Partners Who Pitch in," Washington Post, January 31, 1993, Fl; Mayo, "Influence and Power of First Ladies," p. A52; Winfield, "Madame President," pp. 59-71.

(14.) Caroli, First Ladies; Gould, American First Ladies; Gould, "Modern First Ladies," pp. 677-83; Mayo, "Influence and Power of First Ladies," p. A52.

(15.) Anthony, First Ladies; Gould, American First Ladies; Gould, "Modern First Ladies," pp. 677-83; Hoxie, "About this Issue," pp. 672-5; Mayo, "Influence and Power of First Ladies," p. A52.

(16.) Gould, "Modern First Ladies," pp. 677-83.

(17.) Paul F. Boller, Jr., Presidential Wives: An Anecdotal History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988).

(18.) See James David Barber, Presidential Character: Predicting Performance in the White House (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1992).

(19.) See the forthcoming book by Cronin and Genovese titled Paradoxes of the American Presidency, where the change in the status of the first lady is reflected by including discussions of the office.

(20.) Gould, American First Ladies; Troy, Affairs of State.

(21.) Carl Sferrazza Anthony, "The First Ladies: They've Come a Long Way, Martha," Smithsonian 23 (1992): 135-58; Black, Casting Her Own Shadow; Boller, Presidential Wives.

(22.) Anthony, "The First Ladies," pp. 135-58; Judy Mann, "A Lesson for First Ladies," Washington Post, March 14, 1994, 138; Judy Mann, "First Ladies for Our Times," Washington Post, December 11, 1992, E3.

(23.) Caroli, First Ladies; Gould, "Modern First Ladies," pp. 677-83; Ryan and Smith, Modern First Ladies.

(24.) Anthony, First Ladies; Mayo, "Influence and Power of First Ladies," p. A52.

(25.) Weisberger, "Petticoat Government," pp. 18-20.

(26.) Germaine Greer, "Abolish Her: The Feminist Case Against First Ladies," The New Republic, June 26, 1995: 21-7.

(27.) Gould, American First Ladies; Hoxie, "About this Issue," pp. 672-75.

(28.) Caroli, First Ladies; Gould, American First Ladies; Margaret Truman, The First Ladies (New York: Random House, 1996).

(29.) Ibid.

(30.) Anthony, First Ladies; Boller, Presidential Wives; Caroli, First Ladies; Gould, American First Ladies; Gutin, The President's Partner; James S. Rosebush, First Lady, Public Wife: A Behind-the-Scenes History of the Evolving Role of First Ladies in American Political Life (New York: Madison Books, 1987).

(31.) Black, Casting Her Own Shadow.

(32.) Anthony, First Ladies; Boller, Presidential Wives; Caroli, First Ladies; Gutin, The President's Partner; Truman, The First Ladies.

(33.) Caroli, First Ladies; Gutin, The President's Partner.

(34.) Anthony, "The First Ladies," pp. 135-58; A. M. Rosenthal, "The First Ladyship," The New York Times, March 11, 1994, p. 138; Winfield, "Madame President," pp. 59-71.

(35.) Rosebush, First Lady, Public Wife; Truman, The First Ladies.

(36.) Caroli, First Ladies; Gutin, The President's Partner.

(37.) Rosebush, First Lady, Public Wife.

(38.) Anderson and Baxendale, Behind Every Successful President; Troy, Affairs of State.

(39.) Truman, The First Ladies.

(40.) "The Women We Admire," Public Opinion (March/April 1989): 40; "First Ladies: The Veterans of America's Second Toughest Job," Life 9 (July 1986): 107-14.

(41.) Caroli, First Ladies; Mann, "A Lesson For First Ladies," p. 138; Mann, "First Ladies For Our Times," p. E3.

(42.) Gould, American First Ladies; Gould, "Modern First Ladies," p. 675; Hoxie, "About this Issue," pp. 677-83; Troy, Affairs of State.