A qualitative inquiry on Schadenfreude by sport fans.

Dalakas, Vassilis ; Melancon, Joanna Phillips ; Sreboth, Tarah 等

Consumption of sport is often associated with extreme passion and loyalty and can turn people into fanatics (Bristow & Sebastian, 2001; Hunt, Bristol, & Bashaw, 1999; Kelley & Tian, 2004). Most fans usually demonstrate their devotion to their favorite team through socially acceptable behaviors; however, in some occasions, fanaticism can become extreme and lead to inappropriate and/or dangerous behaviors (Hunt et al., 1999; Wakefield & Wann, 2006; Wann, Haynes, McLean, & Pullen, 2003) prompting calls for more research regarding the "dark side" of strong team identification (Madrigal & Dalakas, 2008).

The competitive nature of sport fuels fanaticism and negative behaviors targeting rivals. This study focused on Schadenfreude by sport fans, a phenomenon that is widely documented in the media (e.g., Blythe, 2007; Egan, 2012; Gibbs, 2010; Krell, 2012) but has received limited attention by sport academic researchers. Schadenfreude is a German word that is used to describe feelings of pleasure and joy that one party experiences at the misfortunes of another; it is especially likely to occur when there is an antagonistic relationship between the two parties. Given that Schadenfreude represents an emotion rather than an actual behavior, it may be seen as harmless demonstration of fans' passion. Nonetheless, the causes that elicit Schadenfreude in sport fans may need further attention, especially if it pertains to serious events. In that case, feelings of pleasure and joy should probably cause concern as they reflect dehumanizing one's rivals. In this study, we specifically focus on responses to one's death, a misfortune of serious nature and we examine whether fans experience pleasure when a person considered a hated rival passes away.

Sport Team Identification

The basic premise of social identity theory suggests that people define themselves in part by their memberships and affiliations to different social groups (Hogg & Abrams, 1988; Turner, 1982). Social identity is especially powerful in the context of sport given that sport teams are social groups with whom people form strong connections and become identified (Kelley & Tian, 2004; Madrigal, 2000).

Sport team identification is associated with several positive outcomes for the fans' well-being in terms of self-esteem, social well-being, experiencing positive emotions, and lower likelihood to feel lonely (Branscombe & Wann, 1991; Wann, 1994; Wann, 2006a; b). Furthermore, team identification can be beneficial to sport organizations, especially when it comes to watching games (Bristow & Sebastian, 2001; Fisher & Wakefield, 1998) even to the point of changing one's work or school schedules or canceling social engagements in order not to miss a game (Wann, Friedman, McHale, & Jaffe, 2003), purchasing team-related licensed merchandise (Bristow & Sebastian, 2001; Fisher & Wakefield, 1998), and having positive responses toward the team's sponsors (Bee & Dalakas, 2014; Madrigal 2000).

Nonetheless, in some cases strong identification with sport teams can have negative consequences as it may be associated with problematic behaviors. Often such behaviors entail some form of aggression or willingness to engage in aggressive behavior. In general, fans with high team identification have less control over aggressive behavior (Dimmock & Grove, 2005); therefore, it is not surprising that research has found highly identified fans are more likely to be aggressive (Warm, 1993), to consider anonymous act of hostile aggression like tripping an opposing player or coach or breaking the opposing player's or coach's leg (Wann et al., 2003), or to consider engaging in those behaviors after their team's loss (Wann et al., 2005). Stories from the news confirm such tendencies ranging from well publicized cases of fan violence like the Heysel tragedy where 39 soccer fans died (Luckhurst, 2012) to other incidents of fans' aggression like fans assaulting opposing fans (Norwood, 2012; Townsend, 2013), fans shooting opposing fans (Mucha, 2012), fans stabbing opposing fans (Hannan, 2013), fans running over opposing fans with their car (Schoetz, 2008), or even more bizarre cases of fans poisoning landmark trees associated with their rivals (Schlabach, 2011). In addition to physical aggression, identification can also lead to verbal aggression (Wann, Carlson, & Schrader, 1999); in the context of sport, this is often exhibited through "blasting," where fans make derogatory comments about their rivals (Cialdini & Richardson, 1980; End, 2001; Havard, Gray, Gould, Sharp, & Schaffer, 2013). Verbal aggression is especially prevalent in an online environment; in an examination of comments by college sports fans, Havard and Inoue (2012) found that at least half of the posts were derogatory toward a rival, with many of them using especially strong language.

Not surprisingly, the target of negative anti-social behaviors by sport fans is mostly associated with a rival (e.g., rival fans, rival players, rival coaches, etc.); strong attachment to one side facilitates and encourages vilification of the opposing side. As a result, fans dislike, sometimes very intensely, their rivals (Bergkvist, 2012; Simons & Taylor, 1992). Given the main premises of balance theory (Heider, 1958), to maintain balance, people tend to have favorable responses to objects that have a positive relationship with what they like and tend to have a negative response to objects with a negative relationship to what they like (e.g., "my friends' friends are my friends" and "my friends' enemies are my enemies"). In the context of sport, this kind of affect transfer is manifested through strong negative feelings toward a favorite team's rivals (Havard et al., 2013).

The distinction between "us" and "them" among fans reinforces an in-group bias which influences fans' perceptions in a way that is favorable for one's own side and unfavorable for the opponent (Hastorf & Cantril, 1954; Madrigal & Dalakas, 2008). Similarly, fans would use favorable language when describing the in-group and less favorable language when describing the out-group, a tendency known as Linguistic Intergroup Bias (Maass, Salvi, Arcuri, & Semin, 1989). What makes those biases noteworthy is the fact that they take place even in the presence of objective information that implies they are flawed (Madrigal & Dalakas 2008), which is consistent with the very notion of rivalry in that people's emphasis on outcomes overlooks the objective characteristics of a situation (Kilduff, Elfenbein, & Staw, 2010). Highly identified fans consistently evaluate fans of their own team more favorably than opposing fans (Wann & Dolan, 1994; Warm & Grieve, 2005). Similar tendencies have been reported in the context of fans' responses to sponsors; highly identified fans respond positively to sponsors of their team and negatively to sponsors of their rivals (Bee & Dalakas, 2014; Bergkvist, 2013; Davies, Veloutsou, & Costa, 2006). Interestingly, such biases were evident despite arguments about the quality of a sponsor's products; highly identified fans responded positively to sponsors of their favorite team, even when the information relating to the product quality was weak, while they responded negatively to sponsors of the rival team, even when the information relating to the product quality was strong (Bee & Dalakas, 2014).

Schadenfreude

A big part of the appeal of sport is the opportunity for vicarious achievement through victories of the teams and athletes that fans support; consequently, fans Bask In the Reflected Glory (BIRG) of those successes (Cialdini et al., 1976; Ware & Kowalski, 2012). In addition to rooting for their teams to win, fans also root for specific teams to lose; according to the disposition theory of sport spectatorship (Zillmann, Bryant, & Sapolsky, 1989), fans' emotions of joy and disappointment are a function of what happens to liked and disliked competitors alike. Fans rejoice when their favorite team wins but also when a disliked competitor loses; similarly, they are pained by their team's losses but also by their rival's victories.

The notion of Schadenfreude, a German word that refers to feeling pleasure at the misfortunes of another, captures the essence of rooting against rivals and essentially wishing for bad outcomes for them. Despite being a widely discussed topic in the media, Schadenfreude by sport fans has received relatively limited attention in academic research (Dalakas & Melancon, 2012; Leach, Spears, Branscombe, & Doosje, 2003; Sierra, Taute, & Heiser, 2010). Specifically within sports, Dalakas and Melancon (2012) reported that fans' identification with their team combined with high importance on winning were related to Schadenfreude toward rivals for a variety of incidents: sponsor of a rival going out of business, owner of a rival facing legal troubles, player on rival team getting suspended for a year, even if the suspension was not completely deserved, and facility (stadium, arena) of a rival suffering damage. Those incidents were considerable as they suggested Schadenfreude in contexts above and beyond simply the outcome of the game and the disposition theory of sport spectatorship (Zillmann et al., 1989) indicating that such feelings can emerge in response to more serious incidents. Additionally, research has found that Schadenfreude emerges more easily when the misfortune occurs to a disliked person (Hareli & Weiner, 2002) or when a misfortune is perceived as deserved (Feather & Sherman, 2002; Van Dijk, Ouwerkerk, Goslinga, & Nieweg, 2005).

A study by Wann and Waddill (2007) provided interesting insight regarding fan response to misfortune, by examining how Earnhardt fans and other NASCAR fans reacted to the crash and death of racecar driver Dale Earnhardt, Sr. Consistent with the premises of the disposition theory, the results showed a difference in the level of sympathy reported by highly identified Earnhardt fans and other fans with the latter being less sympathetic than the former; thus, a fan's relationship with a sports entity influenced responses to one's death.

Our study also focuses on fan reaction to the death of a sport figure; we aim to provide insight on Schadenfreude among sport fans in terms of fans actually experiencing pleasure at a perceived rival's death. The selection of this particular event is important because of its gravity. While it may not always be considered a serious matter when fans experience Schadenfreude at a rival team's loss at a game, the idea of cherishing and celebrating a person's death is obviously more disturbing. Consequently, examining their reactions to one's death offers interesting insights to psychology of sport fans and Schadenfreude in sport.

Method

Context

Specifically, we examined reactions by fans to the news of the passing of Art Modell, owner of the Baltimore Ravens from the National Football League (NFL) on September 6, 2012. Modell was the owner who moved the Cleveland team (the Browns) to Baltimore (where they were renamed the Ravens) before the 1996 NFL season began; news of losing their team caused great distress and anger among Cleveland fans who subsequently viewed Art Modell as one of the greatest villains in their mind (In Cleveland, ripping Modell is an acquired art, 2001). Despite the move, the league allowed Cleveland to continue ownership of the Browns name and Browns colors and it awarded Cleveland a new franchise in 1999 to be the Cleveland Browns; however, the team has struggled for many years and has caused much disappointment to the Cleveland fans (Rainey, Yost, & Larsen, 2011) who have maintained their resentment and animosity toward Art Modell. Therefore, his death in 2012 presented an appropriate real-life situation to study Schadenfreude.

Procedures

Data were collected through publically available comments shared by fans on ESPN's open response forums following the online article about ModelFs death. Researchers on rivalry have recommended qualitative research for gaining useful insight on fans' feelings toward rivals (Havard et al., 2013). The qualitative approach to data analysis in this study was Netnography, the observation of participants' thoughts/behavior through commentary in online communities and forums (Kozinets, 1998). Netnographic research is especially useful in the collection of data on potentially sensitive social topics such as Schadenfreude experienced in response to the death of another; the anonymity of the internet may allow individuals the freedom to express their true feelings without any fear for repercussion (Kozinets, 1998). A total of 233 posted comments were used in the analysis; many of them were by fans of the Baltimore Ravens or the Cleveland Browns. The comments were unfiltered actual responses by fans, therefore providing rich data that captured people's true emotions and reactions in real time shortly after the event occurred.

The textual data from the online forum were coded using an iterative reading procedure called grounded theory (Strauss & Corbin, 1990) whereby researchers initially categorized fans' responses by similarities and differences into themes (open coding) and then grouped like themes together (axial coding). The last stage of analysis involved telling the story of the data through broad categories that explain Schadenfreude in this situation (selective coding). All of the categories and themes are described in the following section.

Results

Analysis of the comments revealed seven emerging themes in fans' responses, which related to Schadenfreude. The themes could be classified within three broader categories: Schadenfreude Intensified; Schadenfreude Curbed; Disapproving Schadenfreude.

Category I: Schadenfreude Intensified (42.4% of all comments)

Theme 1: Justifying hatred (30% of all comments). Many comments were about the sense of injustice that Cleveland Browns fans felt because Modell moved the team from its longtime home of Cleveland to Baltimore in 1996. Sixteen years later, Cleveland fans continued to feel wronged by that move. As a result, they felt their ill will towards Modell was clearly justified and they took this opportunity to write comments that explained to others their viewpoint. For example, a quote representing this position is by a fan with the username TheMostModest00 who stated:

   All this talk of Cleveland right now proves Art Modell secured the
   infamy of his legacy with The Move. This bloodbath in here right
   now is his own fault. He tarnished his own legacy. He soiled his
   own reputation and he deserves these unbecoming epitaphs that come
   as a direct result of the decision he alone made.

Interestingly, some non-Cleveland fans agreed that the Cleveland fans were within their rights to have such feelings of hatred against Art Modell and came to their defense like the statement by username Mikedaniels illustrates:

   Not from Cleveland, never even been to Ohio or care about the
   Browns, yet I find it mystifying that some fans, certainly not from
   Cleveland, seem to have no ability to understand why Cleveland fans
   are angry at Modell. "Get over it." seems to be the common refrain.
   If your childhood, your life, is filled with positive memories,
   family experiences, that revolved around rooting for a local team,
   being part of that spanning generations and then one day an owner
   just ends it all, packs up shop and moves the team away, you'd
   likely be fairly angry, too. Especially if you had to watch the
   team that moved away be successful and a replacement team come into
   your city and be God awful.

Theme 2: Bringing back painful memories (2.1% of all comments). Closely related to justification of hatred toward Modell for moving the team out of Cleveland, a few fans' comments reflected on how the move of their team caused substantial pain and distress to them and/or their loved ones. Consistent with the premises of social identity theory (Hogg & Abrams, 1988; Turner, 1982), the team was part of their identity, making the relocation a difficult personal loss. The comment by username xquv captures this sentiment:

   I wish I could say something nice. But i just can't. I think of my
   sister, the die hard Browns fan who took me to the 1964
   championship game. As she lay dying during the 1998 football
   season, she turned to me and said, "I'd give anything to see
   another Browns game." So Art, I wish I could say rest in peace. But
   I just can't.

Thus, the person they considered responsible for the move of the team was also to blame for their personal pain. The news of Modell's death reminded fans of those painful memories and brought back the old resentment, leading them to refocus their anger on Modell and rejoice in his death, clearly illustrated by the comment by username buckeye_07:

   Art, you took years away from my NFL life that I will never get
   back. I will never forget the look on my father's face (a
   lifelong/die-hard Browns fan) when he broke the news to my brother
   and I that the Browns were moving. When he passed in 2004 (days
   before the Browns took on Detroit in the pre season opener) he
   still had fresh in his mind the Cleveland Browns of old. I know he
   wished he would be alive to see this day ... I'm just happy my
   brother and I can cherish this for him.

Theme 3: Celebrating death (10.3% of all comments). Reaching well beyond some readers/fans' feelings of injustice, several respondents viciously outpoured their animosity by expressing their overwhelming joy about the death of Art Modell. Comments like "i guess Christmas came early this year fellas! go browns!!!" (by username CakeBoss421) or "best day ever, go browns" (by username 862matt) unmistakably and unquestionably demonstrated the very essence of Schadenfreude. In these cases, Cleveland fans made a point of expressing their joy at Modell's death with comments like "I wonder if his funeral will be open to the public? If so, I say we Browns fans go and say good riddance with a smile on our faces!" (by username fmichigan14) and even went as far as mocking the deceased with comments like the one by username Neshade:

   Enjoy your ride to HELL you SOB! You stole what wasn't yours! The
   team might have been yours but our hearts and souls were NOT! The
   people of Cleveland will NEVER forget or forgive you for what you
   did! You were going broke because you were a poor businessman. The
   Browns averaged over 69,000 per game for over 50 years! Art owned
   the stadium group, and received all the ticket money! You ripped
   our hearts and souls out when you stole the Browns. You left
   nothing, you were forced to give it to Cleveland or face many a
   lawsuit! Let the truth be known! There is a special place for you!
   Bum baby Burn!

Category II: Schadenfreude Curbed (18.8% of all comments)

Theme 4: No grave-dancing, but no sympathy or forgiveness (12.4% of all comments). Building on their feeling of injustice, some readers/fans verbalized their deep-rooted anger against Modell. However, these comments still maintained a sense of decency and respect under the light of the news of the death of Art Modell; there is no love for Modell here, but no celebration of his death either. Those responses implied that maybe the fans recognized that actively and publically celebrating someone's death may be inappropriate and not socially acceptable; so, they made a point to state they were not doing that while at the same time also made a point to explain they were justified to not feel sad or sympathetic in any way and they still held a grudge against him. For example, username bigukfan0 wrote:

   As a Browns fan, I won't dance on the guy's grave. But the idea
   that somehow all the hate and anger will now go away is a joke.
   It's like the ex-wife who cheats on you, stomps on your heart and
   leaves and takes everything. You can move on in your life, but you
   don't have to suddenly say forgive, forget and say nice things.

Username tvjrc603 made a similar statement capturing the spirit of the several comments that reflect this theme:

   just because he died doesn't change the circumstances of his
   life--if you had asked me how i felt about art modell a week ago,
   my response would have been the exact same thing: for all the good
   he may or may not have done, and as good of a guy as we all
   hear he was, he betrayed the fans who had supported him for the
   past 30+ years, and took away one of the things they were most
   passionate about, maybe the city should have funded a new stadium,
   etc., but that doesn't change the way that the fans do or should
   remember his impact on their lives, while i don't agree with
   reveling in his death, nobody can intelligently expect us to all of
   the sudden forgive and forget now that he is gone.

Theme 5: Forgiveness (6.4% of all comments). Some fans' comments expressed forgiveness; while admitting their pain, they suggested they had moved on and encouraged their fellow fans to do so as well with statements like "He broke our hearts ... Agreed but we need to let go ... New beginnings" (by username dew68blue). Although there were relatively few comments representing this sentiment, it is important to note this different reaction by these Cleveland fans that seemed to not hold animosity directed at Modell and who made a conscious effort to communicate no feelings of Schadenfreude, independent of the disappointment for losing their beloved Browns. For example, username mgraber1985 wrote:

   I'm a Cleveland fan, and I hated losing the browns as much as
   anyone, but nobody wants to be in business to lose money, except
   maybe Michael Jordan, but at the end of the day he fielded many
   excellent browns teams and did a lot of charity work, I don't hold
   hostility and maybe my fellow browns fans should also get over it
   like I did, and hope our new owner cares for the browns the way
   modell did. Go browns, and r.i.p. art.

Category III: Disapproving Schadenfreude (38.6% of all comments)

Theme 6: Criticizing Schadenfreude (but unintentionally supporting its principle; 11.6% of all comments). Given that Art Modell moved the team to Baltimore, Baltimore fans were also quite active in posting comments on the story of his death. There was consistent comparison between the situation of how Cleveland lost its team when owner Modell moved it to Baltimore and how Baltimore had lost its previous team, the Colts, when their owner Robert Irsay moved them to Indianapolis. As Baltimore fans criticized Cleveland fans for their reaction to Modell's death, they made a point about having the right to make such statements because they had endured a similar or, in their mind, even worse situation when they had lost their own team. For example, username howboutdemOs420 stated:

   Here's the thing. Yeah, sure. It sucked for the city of Cleveland
   for 4 years. Maybe Modell didn't do what you wanted. And as someone
   who was robbed of 13 years of hometown football, I can understand.
   I'm not telling you to like the guy. And at the same time, to act
   like he and Jim Irsay are the same is just absurd. I think that is
   what gets Ravens fans the most riled up. Because the situations
   just aren't comparable. Plus, you are celebrating a man's death
   like it was the Browns winning the Super Bowl.
   Classy.

Interestingly, although the purpose of such comments was to criticize Cleveland fans for their Schadenfreude, they actually, indirectly and unintentionally, supported the principle of Schadenfreude. In other words, Baltimore fans essentially implied that Schadenfreude is okay to be experienced when justified but they just did not feel that Cleveland fans were justified because, in the mind of Baltimore fans, the Cleveland situation was not as a bad as what Baltimore had experienced before as statements like the one by username reisig08:

   Which is why every fan in Baltimore has room to talk and voice our
   opinion ... because we've been through it and went without a team
   for 13 years. The difference between Modell and Bob Irsay is that
   Modell left the team's history, colors, logo, and legacy in
   Cleveland and expressed his love for the city and the fans. Irsay
   publically berated Baltimore fans, took the entire Colts brand with
   him, and snuck out under the cover of night. Cleveland fans need to
   understand that Baltimore fans were pretty conflicted about the way
   that we got a new team because of all fan bases, we got it. But be
   glad that you are still rooting for the Browns in Cleveland. If
   Modell didn't care about the fans and the city, he wouldn't have
   left that brand and legacy in place.

Theme 7: Denouncing Schadenfreude and defending the victim of Schadenfreude (27% of all comments). Lastly, there were a number of fans whose comments reacted to Cleveland fans' resentment of Modell; these comments denounced Schadenfreude as inappropriate with statements like "Some of these comments from Browns fans are simply disgusting. Condolences to the Modell family. R.I.P." (by username Englishterp1) or "ESPN, please close the comment section, this is beyond ridiculous. No man deserves this" (by username BballJunkieDFlow). Consequently, some fans, like username SatanicCheeto714, criticized the Cleveland fans for their Schadenfreude on Modell's death:

   The reason the national media piles on Cleveland is the fans in
   Cleveland show their lack of class every chance they get, and this
   is about as perfect an example as one can get. As much of the
   vitriol aimed at Mr. Modell as there is, you would think he was a
   mass murderer or some other sort of heinous creature. He moved a
   damn football team, and said football team has been back in
   Cleveland for 13 years, yet "Cleveland won't forgive or forget",
   instead choosing to $@%! on a man's grave before he's even buried.
   Get over it, you asinine vultures. Nobody outside of Cleveland
   gives a rat's $@% if you forgive him or not. To any sports fan with
   half a brain, you just remind the rest of the country why Cleveland
   will always be known as "The Mistake By The Lake."

Moreover, some of the comments within this theme defended Modell and offered a justification for his decision along with praise for his overall contributions to Cleveland and the NFL; for example, the fan with username EvanEvan721 stated:

   I'm rooting for the Browns to recover (Cleveland seems to go
   through hell in sports) but I think there's almost no way to deny
   the HOF based on Modell's resume. You could say he moved the team
   in 96 and that it was unfair, but without him the NFL itself
   wouldn't have been able to get nearly as popular as it is today.
   Who knows, if TV continued to shy away from the NFL they might have
   had to cut teams instead of expanding. There might have been far
   greater consequences for Cleveland without him than with him, warts
   and all.

Not surprisingly, most of these comments were written by non-Cleveland fans and especially by Baltimore fans, the beneficiaries of Modell's decision to move the team, as they regained a franchise after having their Baltimore Colts move to Indianapolis several years prior to Modell's decision. However, there were few comments by Cleveland fans that also defended Modell and condemned fellow fans for celebrating his death, as the one by username MattCarpenter81 illustrates:

   I am a huge Browns fan, but there is no way in hell I am going to
   celebrate another man's death. Hitler did not die last night, Art
   Modell did, a guy who was a good owner, was he wrong for pulling
   the Browns out of Cleveland? Hell Yes he was and I hated him every
   minute for it, but turning this guy into a Hitler or a Bin Laden
   and celebrating his death is just wrong.

Discussion

Our analysis provided meaningful insight regarding Schadenfreude toward a hated rival's death. Specifically, the findings support the premises of disposition theory by establishing that a number of fans experienced (and were willing to publically admit) substantial joy at another person's death. This is quite telling given the nature of the misfortune and the fact that, in general, it is a type of event that others should not celebrate. In other words, some highly identified fans appear to be quite comfortable admitting to experiencing positive feelings for bad outcomes on rivals, even when such behaviors are considered socially inappropriate and are denounced by many others. Therefore, the findings lend support to the disposition theory by showing it being pertinent even in contexts where one would not expect to witness such emotions and behaviors. In other words, a number of highly identified fans would root for and celebrate negative outcomes occurring to rivals independent of the nature and gravity of those outcomes.

The themes that emerged through the content reveal some key points regarding this emotion among sport fans and whether experiencing Schadenfreude and admitting to it is acceptable. The first key issue is the nature of the misfortune. Clearly, in the case of someone's death, the intensity of the event is very severe and, as a result, there was debate on whether it was appropriate; the themes pertaining to Schadenfreude Curbed and Disapproving Schadenfreude included comments that considered it inappropriate and wrong to take joy in someone's death independent of the circumstances. However, the three themes pertaining to Schadenfreude Intensified (accounting for more than 40% of all comments) included comments that supported experiencing such pleasure even at the expense of someone's death.

The nature of those comments shed light into the second key issue in our findings, if, and under what circumstances, a fan's Schadenfreude toward someone's death can be excused and even, as it was evident in some of the comments, encouraged and applauded. Supporting findings from previous research (e.g., Feather & Sherman, 2002; Van Dijk et al., 2005), the fans' comments in the three themes under Schadenfreude Intensified suggested that Schadenfreude can (or even should) emerge when it happens to a disliked person and when the misfortune is perceived to be deserved. Many fans focused their comments on the fact that, despite the intensity of the misfortune (death), it was entirely appropriate to not only celebrate Modell's death but also communicate such joy publically. In their eyes, it was justified due to Modell's actions toward their team (and, consequently, the fans themselves) which subsequently also classified him as a despised villain; therefore, their argument was that celebrating the death of a hated villain is not only permissible but normal and natural.

One reason for Cleveland fans' willingness to experience Schadenfreude and to justify it may be that they used it a coping mechanism for dealing with their team's struggles and disappointments, especially in the years following the move to Baltimore. As the Team Identification --Social Psychological Health Model (Warm, 2006a) maintains, highly identified sport fans often develop and use coping strategies when there are threats to their identity as sport fans of a team. Through such strategies they try to deal with team-related events that are distressing (Warm, 2006a). In the case of Cleveland fans, there has been much distress and frustration over the years; fans have been upset for the team's poor performance on the field, its inability to attract and maintain top players, and, of course, the lack of wins and post-season appearances. Hating Modell and celebrating his death may make it easier for the fans to cope with those struggles and continue to maintain positive well-being (one of the goals for using coping strategies). In fact, some of the comments from the fans that criticized Cleveland fans for their Schadenfreude towards Modell, made a point of drawing attention to all the other factors that are likely to have caused the Browns' struggles over the years that had nothing to do with Modell. Not surprisingly, they were not successful in convincing the Cleveland fans who continued to defend their position on why their hatred towards Modell was justified and that he was the one to blame, further confirming the possibility this was used as a coping strategy.

Similarly, fans of other teams that were relocated held long-lasting animosity toward the individuals they considered responsible for the move, independent of any evidence that would suggest these individuals may not be entirely to blame for moving the team. For example, Walter O'Malley moved the Dodgers from Brooklyn to Los Angeles and was reviled for decades by Brooklyn fans (who considered him as evil as Stalin and Hitler), even though information suggested that others may have been as or even more responsible for the team leaving Brooklyn (Ellsworth, 2005).

The issue regarding whether Schadenfreude at serious misfortunes, like death, is acceptable if it is justified, merits further attention. As discussed earlier, research has established that highly identified fans engage in biased processing of information, even in the presence of objective facts and arguments (Bee & Dalakas, 2014; Hastorf & Cantril, 1954; Madrigal & Dalakas, 2008). Consequently, the question then becomes is it ever possible that highly identified fans' animosity toward a hatred a rival and subsequent Schadenfreude for misfortunes happening to such rival, would not be perceived as justified, at least in the eyes of those fans themselves?

Along these lines, when fans feel it is justified, could that motivate behavior to inflict pain and misfortune to deserving rivals? In the case of our study, respondents who felt Schadenfreude were motivated enough to engage in verbal aggression through posting inflammatory comments in response to an online story about it. But could it motivate stronger aggressive behaviors and cause harm? Previous research has shown that highly identified fans are more likely to engage in aggressive behaviors toward rivals (e.g., Wann et al., 2003; Wann et al., 2005); is there a possible connection between fan aggression and Schadenfreude where fans take it upon themselves to cause the misfortune to a rival that gives them this feeling of joy?

Another interesting aspect of the results pertains to the venue through which people expressed their feelings and opinions; posting anonymous comments on an internet story may facilitate one's animosity and verbal aggression as it was evidenced by many of the comments either expressing Schadenfreude or criticizing fans for their Schadenfreude. It is worth noting that in the summer of 2013 ESPN made a change where readers can only comment on a story through logging in their Facebook accounts. As a result, the posted comment is linked to an account that, at least in most cases, shows a person's real name and picture (as well as a link to his or her Facebook public page), which may motivate people to be more careful about what they post and reduce use of aggressive language.

Limitations and Future Research

This was an exploratory study to capture Schadenfreude in a controversial context and the comments provided interesting insight on the psychology of conveniently sampled sport fans, especially because they represented fans' true feelings in a real-world setting. However, the richness of the comments came at the expense of internal validity; there was no ability to measure respondents' identification level with the Cleveland Browns or to include other measures. This would have been especially useful to facilitate comparisons between highly identified fans and less identified fans; for example, is low team identification more likely to be associated with forgiveness whereas high team identification is more likely to relate to unwillingness to forgive? Highly identified fans may maintain their hatred and unwillingness to forgive as a coping mechanism for the team's struggles (Wann, 2006a). In that case, if the team stops struggling and becomes victorious again, it may facilitate letting go and forgiving as there is less of a threat to the fans' identity and, consequently, less of a need for coping strategies. The fans low in identification are less likely to experience these threats and need to hate as a way to cope in the first place; therefore, they would be more likely to forgive earlier. This is an interesting topic on fan psychology and future research should examine this question through quantitative studies.

Given that in this study the context was someone's death, it would be interesting to see how much stronger Schadenfreude may be when it comes to lesser events; for example, a rival player's injury, a rival player's suspension, a rival player's arrest, or a bad call contributing to a rival's loss. Along those lines, it would be interesting to examine how appropriate fans and non-fans consider the emotion of Schadenfreude within sport and, if appropriate, for what events.

References

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Vassilis Dalakas

California State University San Marcos

Joanna Phillips Melancon

Western Kentucky University

Tarah Sreboth

California State University San Marcos

Address correspondence to: Vassilis Dalakas, Department of Marketing, California State University San Marcos, 333 S. Twins Oaks Valley Rd., San Marcos, CA 92096-0001. Email vdalakas@csusm.edu