Generalizing the team identification: social psychological health model for adolescents.

Wann, Daniel L. ; Brasher, Matthew ; Thomas, Danielle L. 等

Team identification, defined as the extent to which a fan feels a psychological connection to a team (Warm & Branscombe, 1993; Warm, Melnick, Russell, & Pease, 2001), has been found to impact a wide array of responses among sport followers (Dietz-Uhler & Lanter, 2008; Warm, 2006a). For example, team identification is related to evaluations of players (Wann et al., 2006), level of aggression (Dimmock & Grove, 2005), affective responses to competitions (Bizman & Yinon, 2002; Kwon, Lee, & Lee, 2008), physiological reactions to team-relevant stimuli (Hillman, Cuthbert, Bradley, & Lang, 2004), and attendance (Bodet & Bernache-Assollant, 2009; Wakefield & Sloan, 1995).

One of the more extensive lines of research involving team identification concerns the relationship between this variable and psychological well-being. According to the Team Identification--Social Psychological Health Model (TI-SPHM; Wann, 2006b), identification and well-being should be positively related when the identification results in increased connections with others. Two circumstances are predicted to lead to such connections. First, fans who live in or near the geographic location of the team should receive enduring connections via their interest in the team (e.g., a Boston Red Sox baseball fan residing in Boston will frequently find herself in the company of other Red Sox fans).

In addition, fans not living near their team may receive temporary connections when they find themselves within the company of other fans of the team (e.g., a Red Sox fan living in Chicago who gathers with other displaced Red Sox fans to watch the team on television). These connections are expected to lead to improved state and/or trait social psychological health, but not personal well-being as team identification is a social category and, thus, should primarily have implications for social well-being. This process is also predicted to be impacted by threats to the fan's team-relevant identity (e.g., poor team performance, player arrests) and the fan's ability to cope with the threats.

The various components of Wann's (2006b) model have received strong empirical support. For instance, team identification is associated with the development and maintenance of social connections (Phua, 2012; Wann, Waddill, Polk, & Weaver, 2011) and the self-concepts of highly identified fans are often threatened by their team's poor performances (Hirt, Zillmann, Erickson, & Kennedy, 1992). In addition, fans develop and utilize a wide range of coping strategies to combat the threats (Wann, 2006b) including biased attributions (Wann & Dolan, 1994), biased perceptions of team performance (Markman & Hirt, 2002), and utilization of superstitious behaviors (Wann et al., 2013). However, most critical to support of the TI-SPHM is the documentation of the positive relationship between team identification and social well-being. Beginning with the work of Branscombe and Wann (1991), a large number of studies have found that identification (with a local team) is positively correlated with various measures of social psychological health. For instance, compared to persons with low levels of team identification, highly identified fans report higher levels of collective (i.e., social) self-esteem (Aden & Titsworth, 2012; Phua, 2012; Warm, 1994), social integration (Wann & Weaver, 2009), and trust in others (Wann & Polk, 2007), as well as lower levels of loneliness (Wann, Dimmock, & Grove, 2003) and alienation (Branscombe & Wann, 1991). Highly identified fans also have been found to exhibit a more psychologically healthy profile as assessed through standard personality inventories such as the Profile of Mood States and the Neuroticism-Extroversion-Openness Personality Inventory-Revised (Wann, Dunham, Byrd, & Keenan, 2004; Wann, Inman, Ensor, Gates, & Caldwell, 1999). The aforementioned relationships between identification and well-being generalize to a variety of test settings (e.g., at the arena or in a university classroom), among both marquee and non-marquee sports, and both in-season and off-season (Wann, Keenan, & Page, 2009; Wann, Walker, Cygan, Kawase, & Ryan, 2005). Further, longitudinal research suggests that the relationship between identification and wellbeing is likely causal in nature (Wann, 2006c).

The Current Study and Hypotheses

Although the list of research indicating the positive relationship between identification and social well-being is extensive, Wann, Rogers, Dooley, and Foley (2011) noted a limitation to this line of work in that participant samples were extremely homogenous. Specifically, they stated that, "to date, each study documenting the positive relationship between sport team identification and social psychological health has relied on college student populations" (p. 305). To help remedy this methodological shortcoming and expand the generalizability of the TI-SPHM, Warm and his colleagues (2011) examined the team identification and social well-being of a sample of elderly adults (M age = 70.82 years; range = 50-95 years; 39 male and 57 female). Consistent with the model, their results replicated previous research testing college students as team identification was a significant predictor of various indices of social health. This pattern of effects held even with other individual difference variables included in the regression equation (e.g., age, marital status, employment status).

The aim of the current investigation was to continue the work of Wann et al. (2011) by examining the generalizability of the TI-SPHM to a younger (adolescent) population. Therefore, we tested the hypothesized positive relationship between identification and social well-being in a high school setting. Recent work indicates that individuals can develop and maintain high levels of identification with high school teams and that their identification is related to a number of factors such as having played on or served as a cheerleader for the team, following the team via the media, and attending the team's games (Grieve et al., 2013). Although research on fandom and spectating within the realm of high school sports is somewhat scarce, one recent study has relevance for the current investigation. This research, conducted by Reding, Grieve, Derryberry, and Paquin (2011), tested the TI-SPHM within high school sports. Participants (adults and college students) completed a questionnaire packet assessing level of identification with their high school football team, identification with their community, and measures of social well-being. Consistent with expectations and the TI-SPHM, identification with the high school team was a significant unique predictor of both community identification (i.e., high school football identification was related to connections with others) and social well-being (i.e., higher levels of extraversion and collective self-esteem).

The findings reported by Reding and his colleagues (2011) indicate that the TI-SPHM is applicable to identification with high school sport teams as well as teams at the collegiate and professional levels. However, participants in the Reding et al. work were college students and adult members of the local community. As noted above, our goal was to examine the generalizability of Wann's (2006b) model to adolescent fans by investigating the relationship between their level of identification with their high school's football team and social psychological health. Wann's model does not suggest that this relationship should be limited to adults, and prior work (Warm et al., 2011) has found that the model generalizes to populations of varying age. Thus, we expected the components of the TI-SPHM to be substantiated with a younger sample as well. We tested the applicability of Wann's model to younger persons by asking high school students to complete a questionnaire packet assessing their level of identification with their high school's varsity football team, their general level of sport fandom, and three measures of well-being. Two of the well-being scales assessed social psychological health (satisfaction with one's social life and degree of social isolation) while one scale assessed a component of personal well-being (degree of emotional isolation). Based on the Team Identification--Social Psychological Health Model, the following hypotheses were generated and tested:

Hypothesis 1: It was hypothesized that team identification would account for a significant proportion of unique variance for assessments of social well-being (satisfaction with social life and social isolation). Specifically, higher levels of social life satisfaction and lower levels of social isolation were expected to correspond with higher levels of team identification. This hypothesis was based on the aforementioned predictions from the model that identification with a local team will be related to social well-being and substantiated by the empirical work described above.

Hypothesis 2: It was predicted that mere sport fandom would not account for a significant proportion of unique variance for any of the assessments of well-being (satisfaction with social life, social isolation, or emotional isolation). This pattern of effects was expected because, according to the TI-SPHM, fandom should not lead to social connections as readily as identification with a specific local team. As a result, fandom should not result in well-being benefits (see Warm, 2006b). The lack of relationship between mere fandom and well-being has been noted in several empirical investigations (e.g., Theodorakis, Wann, Nassis, & Luellen, 2012; Warm & Weaver, 2009).

Hypothesis 3: It was predicted that team identification would not account for a significant proportion of unique variance for assessments of personal well-being (emotional isolation), because, according to the model, identification has implications for social wellbeing rather than personal well-being (see Wann, 2006b). This pattern of effects has been substantiated in multiple studies (e.g., Normansell & Wann, 2010; Wann, Pierce, et al., 2003).

Method

Participants

The original sample consisted of 93 students attending a public mid-sized high school in the mid-south (enrollment was slightly over 500 at the time of testing). However, 5 participants returned incomplete protocols and were removed from the sample. Therefore, the final sample consisted of 88 students (53 male; 35 female; 12 who were members of the band; 17 who were members of the football team). They had a mean age of 16.43 years (SD = 1.19). Most participants were seniors (48%), although all classes were well-represented (freshmen = 15%; sophomores = 14%; juniors = 21%; 2% not reporting).

Materials and Procedure

Subsequent to receiving IRB approval and gaining participant/parental consent, respondents (tested in groups in a high school cafeteria) completed a questionnaire packet containing five sections. The first section assessed demographics as respondents indicated their age, gender, year in school, whether or not they played in the school's marching band (the marching band regularly performed at half time of the target school's home football games), and whether or not they played on the high school's football team.

Next, participants were instructed to complete the seven-item, Likert-scale format Sport Spectator Identification Scale (SSIS; Wann & Branscombe, 1993) targeting their high school's football team. The SSIS is a reliable and valid tool for assessing team identification (Wann & Branscombe, 1993). This scale has been used in dozens of studies (Wann et al., 2001) and has been translated into multiple languages including Portuguese (Theodorakis, Wann, Carvalho, & Sarmento, 2010) and French (Bernache, Bouchet, & Lacassagne, 2007). A sample item read, "How important is being a fan of (target team) to you?" Response options ranged from 1 (low identification) to 8 (high identification). Thus, higher numbers represented greater levels of team identification.

The third section of the packet contained the Sport Fandom Questionnaire (SFQ; Wann, 2002). The SFQ is a reliable and valid unidimensional instrument designed to assess participants' degree of identification with the role of sport fan. The scale is comprised by five Likert-scale items. A sample item read, "Being a sport fan is very important to me." Response options ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 8 (strongly agree). Consequently, higher numbers represented greater levels of fandom.

The final two sections contained two scales designed to assess psychological health. First, participants completed items from the Emotional/Social Loneliness Inventory (ESLI; Vincenzi & Grabosky, 1987). Specifically, they completed 15 items assessing isolation. These items are used to establish a social isolation subscale (7 items; "deficiency in intimacy and attachments," p. 260) and an emotional isolation subscale (8 items; "deficiency in social integration," p. 260). The subscales have sound psychometric properties (see Vincenzi & Grabosky, 1987). A sample item on the social isolation subscale read, "I spend a lot of time alone." A sample item on the emotional isolation subscale read, "There is no one in my life that tries to understand me." Response options were 1 (rarely true), 2 (sometimes true), 3 (often true), and 4 (usually true). Thus, higher numbers represented greater levels of social and emotional loneliness. Second, participants completed the five-item Satisfaction with Social Life Scale (SSLS; Wann & Pierce, 2005). This reliable and valid Likert-scale was based on the Satisfaction with Life Scale (Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985). A sample item on the SSLS read, "In most ways my social life is close to my ideal." Response options ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Thus, higher numbers represented greater levels of satisfaction with one's social life.

After completing the questionnaire packet (approximately 15-20 minutes), participants were debriefed and excused from the testing session.

Target Football Team

The target high school football team had been extremely successful in recent seasons, compiling an overall record of 42 wins and only 7 losses during the previous four seasons. The team qualified for the state playoffs in each of those years. Testing occurred during the last week of October prior to the start of the state playoffs. The team had a record of 7 wins and 2 losses at the time of testing.

Results

Preliminary Analyses

Items on the SSIS, SFQ, ESLI social isolation subscale, ESLI emotional isolation subscale, and SSLS were summed to form indices for each scale. Means, standard deviations, and Cronbach's alphas for the measures are listed in Table 1. Gender differences were examined for each measure using a series of one-way ANOVAs. These analyses failed to reveal any significant differences for identification, fandom, social or emotional isolation, or social life satisfaction (all ps > .05). Similarly, a series of one-way ANOVAs utilizing year in school and whether or not the participant played in the marching band failed to reveal any significant differences on the scales (all ps > .05). Thus, all subsequent analyses were collapsed across gender, year in school, and membership in the band. However, a series of ANOVAs examining participation on the football team revealed significant differences for team identification [F(1, 84) = 18.11, p < .001], sport fandom [F(1, 84) = 33.11, p < .001], social isolation, [F(1, 84) = 6.01, p < .05], and social life satisfaction [F(1, 84) = 4.12, p < .05]. Specifically, participants who played football reported higher levels of identification with the football team (M = 55.18; SD = 2.30), higher levels of fandom (M = 36.71; SD = 6.49), lower levels of loneliness (M = 21.00; SD = 5.09), and higher levels of satisfaction with their social life (M = 29.65; SD = 5.36) than persons who were not on the team (identification M = 37.80; SD = 15.76; fandom M = 21.03; SD = 10.73; loneliness M = 24.90; SD = 6.66; satisfaction M= 25.91; SD = 7.09). There was no difference in emotional isolation as a function of whether or not the participant was a member of the football team (p > .10). Because those on the football team differed from those not on the team on the majority of measures, membership on the football team was incorporated into the analyses described below.

Tests of Hypotheses

To test the hypothesis that team identification would predict social well-being, but fandom would not (i.e., lower levels of social isolation and higher levels of social life satisfaction), three simultaneous regressions were computed in which team identification, sport fandom, and membership on the football team (coded as 1 = plays on team and 2 = does not play on team) were employed as predictor variables and social life satisfaction (Regression 1), social isolation (Regression 2), and emotional isolation (Regression 3) were the dependent variables. Correlations among the variables appear in Table 2. The first regression targeted participants' satisfaction with their social life. This analysis revealed that the combined effect of the three predictor variables was significant, F(3, 82) = 3.56, p < .02 (R = 0.340; [R.sup.2] = 0.115; adjusted [R.sup.2] = 0.083). With respect to independent contributions, as hypothesized (Hypothesis 1) team identification with a winning team accounted for a significant proportion of unique variance in satisfaction with one's social life (t = 2.07, p < .05; B = 0.116; SE B = 0.056; Beta = 0.262). Also as predicted (Hypothesis 2), sport fandom did not account for a significant proportion of unique variance (t = 0.42, p > .60; B = 0.034; SE B = 0.079; Beta = 0.057). Membership on the football team was also not significant (t = -0.61, p > .50; B = -1.305; SE B = 2.154; Beta = -0.076).

The second and third regressions focused on reports of isolation. First, we examined social isolation. The combined effect of the three predictor variables was significant, F(3, 82) = 4.06, p < .02 (R = 0.360; [R.sup.2] = 0.129; adjusted [R.sup.2] = 0.097). With respect to independent contributions, as hypothesized (Hypothesis 1) team identification with a winning team accounted for a significant proportion of unique variance in social isolation (t = -2.17, p < .05; B = -0.065; SE B = 0.030; Beta = -0.273). Also as predicted (Hypothesis 2), sport fandom did not account for a significant proportion of unique variance (r = -0.06, p > .90; B = -0.002; SE 6 = 0.042; Beta = -0.008). Membership on the football team also was not significant (t = 1.13, p > .20; B = 1.282; SE B = 1.138; Beta = 0.139).

Next, we examined emotional isolation. The combined effect of the three predictor variables was not significant, F(3, 82) = 1.64, p < .15 (R = 0.238; [R.sup.2] = 0.056; adjusted [R.sup.2] = 0.022). With respect to independent contributions, as hypothesized (Hypothesis 3) team identification with a winning team failed to account for a significant proportion of unique variance in emotional isolation (t = -1.29, p < .15; B = -0.041; SE B = 0.032; Beta = -0.169). Also as predicted (Hypothesis 2), sport fandom did not account for a significant proportion of unique variance (t = -0.36, p > .70; B = -0.016; SE B = 0.045; Beta = -0.050). Membership on the football team was also not significant (t = 0.48, p > .60; B = 0.593; SE B = 1.224; Beta = 0.062).

Discussion

Over the past two decades, a number of studies have highlighted the positive relationship between level of identification with a local sport team and various measures of social psychological health, including social self-esteem, social integration, loneliness and extroversion (Aden & Titsworth, 2012; Warm, Dimmock, et al., 2003; Warm et ah, 2004; Wann & Weaver, 2009). Although the findings in this line of research have been quite robust, a limitation of past work was that it had focused almost entirely on college and young adult age samples (and, to a much smaller extent, the elderly). Consequently, there was a need to determine if similar patterns would emerge among an adolescent sample. The current research was designed to fill this research void.

Using the Team Identification--Social Psychological Health Model (Wann, 2006b) to guide predictions, a series of hypotheses were generated and tested among a sample comprised of high school students attending a high school (grades 9-12) in the mid-south. Hypothesis 1 predicted that team identification would account for a significant proportion of unique variance in social well-being. This hypothesis was supported as team identification with a winning team predicted satisfaction with one's social life and social isolation (higher levels of identification corresponded with higher levels of social life satisfaction and lower levels of social isolation). Hypothesis 2 predicted that mere sport fandom would not account for a significant proportion of unique variance in well-being. As expected, sport fandom was not significantly predictive of satisfaction with social life, social isolation, or emotional isolation. And third, Hypothesis 3 predicted that team identification would fail to account for a significant proportion of unique variance for an assessment of personal well-being.

The results substantiated this prediction as well; identification was not related to emotional isolation. Each of these patterns of effects supports the propositions of the TI-SPHM. Thus, the current findings indicate that the model is applicable to fans from a wide variety of age groups, including adolescents. Further, the findings replicate other recent work (Reding et al., 2011) indicating that the model is applicable to high school teams.

As noted above, the target team had experienced a great deal of recent success, having won over 80% of its games during the most recent five season span. Wann (2006b) notes that identification with a sport team can positively influence fans' well-being via two routes. First, persons can choose to identify with successful teams and bask-in-the-reflected-glory (BIRG) of the team's successes (Cialdini et al., 1976; Dalakas, Madrigal, & Anderson, 2004). By increasing their association with a successful team, and thus internalizing the team's successes, fans can enhance their own self-concept. Although this first route is performance-dependent (a fan can't BIRG if a team does not perform well), the second route is not reliant on team success. This route, which is the focus of the current investigation and the foundation for the TI-SPHM, involves fans gaining connections to others via their identification with a team. Fans can achieve these connections regardless of team performance. In fact, some teams have incredibly loyal, cohesive, and large fan bases in spite of a long history of failure (e.g., the Chicago Cubs Major League Baseball team). The fact that the high school team targeted in the current investigation had been successful is not a requirement for the results described in this work and similar results should be found with unsuccessful teams. However, because this was the first study to examine adolescent fans, generalizing the current research to fans of losing teams is not yet warranted. Rather, future researchers should replicate the current study with adolescent fans of poorly performing high school teams to test the generalizability of the findings reported here.

Members of the football team reported more positive levels of both indices of social psychological health, relative to those not on the team. However, when included in a regression model that incorporated team identification, it was identification with a winning team rather than membership on the team that accounted for a significant proportion of unique variance in well-being. This suggests that it was not simply being on the team that was key, but rather, the level of psychological connection one felt with the team. Given the importance of social capital and connections to others in Warm's (2006b) model, such a finding seems reasonable. That is, although the football team's roster contained a total of approximately 65 players, the student body as a whole was in excess of 500 persons. By identifying with the winning team (regardless of membership on the team) students gained access to a larger potential body of social connections (e.g., other students, faculty, and staff at the school, members of the local community). Furthermore, it is likely that a few members of the team actually felt little psychological connection to the team (for instance, perhaps they were participating simply out of pressure from their parents). By being a member of the team but not feeling vested in it (and thus lacking identification and the corresponding social connections), one would not expect to receive the well-being benefits.

Although the current investigation was a successful initial step in supporting the TI-SPHM among younger fans, there are still several components of the model that are in need of future research among adolescents. That is, although we did find the hypothesized positive relationship between identification with a winning team and social well-being (and failed to find a relationship between mere fandom and well-being), this pattern of effects is only part of the overall model. For instance, Wann's (2006b) framework predicts that team identification will be positively related to social connections, which will serve as the driving force behind the identification--well-being relationship. Although the positive correlation between identification and social capital has been established with adult fans (Clopton, 2008a, 2008b; Nicholson & Hoye, 2008; Palmer & Thompson, 2007), this relationship has yet to be documented among younger fans. Likewise, although a number of studies have documented the methods used by highly identified fans to cope with threats to their identity as a die-hard fan of a specific team (e.g., poor player performance, poor behaviors exhibited by players on the team, see Wann, 2006b for a review), research has yet to examine the impact of team-related identity threats and methods of coping among adolescent sport fans. It may well be that these processes are somewhat different for younger fans, relative to adult fans who have followed teams for longer periods of times (sometimes decades longer).

For instance, although many highly identified fans cope via superstitious behaviors (Wann et al., 2013; Wilson, Grieve, Ostrowski, Mienaltowski, & Cyr, 2013), they may be less prominent among younger fans given that these behaviors take time to learn and develop. Rather, strategies such as blasting the outgroup (Branscombe & Wann, 1994) and similarly hostile responses may be more common, given the high level of emotional intensity often associated with adolescence (Arnett, 1999). And finally, as noted above, given that the high school team targeted in the current study had been extremely successful in recent seasons, additional research is required to determine if the current work extends to identification with less successful teams as well.

The results detailed in this work likely have practical implications as well. Mental well-being (and in particular, self-esteem) has been a hot topic within the social sciences in recent years, and many authors have written about the potential benefits of positive self-worth (Baumeister, Campbell, Krueger, & Vohs, 2003; Branden, 1994). As it relates to sport and adolescents, it has been argued that a positive consequence of participation in youth sport is increased self-esteem. Although there are likely limits to the effect (Coakley, 2001), numerous studies have found that participation in sport can enhance the self-esteem, including the self-images of adolescent boys and girls (e.g., Kamal, Blais, Kelly, & Ekstrand, 1995; Taylor & Turek, 2010; Wann, 1997). Consequently, school officials have often been encouraged to increase the sport participation among their students. Given the data presented above, it seems that the officials may also want to consider strongly encouraging the student body to become involved as fans as well as players. Not all children possess the requisite skill or desire to participate in sport. Further, roster limitations necessitate that some students with a desire to participate are not allowed. However, almost all teens should be able to follow their high school teams closely, even if they are not able to participation on them. As they become more identified with the local teams, their social capital should increase, resulting in a boost to social psychological health.

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Wann, D. L., Dunham, M. D., Byrd, M. L., & Keenan, B. L. (2004). The five-factor model of personality and the psychological health of highly identified sport fans. International Sports Journal, 8(2), 28-36.

Wann, D. L., Grieve, F. G., End, C., Zapalac, R. K., Lanter, J. R., Pease, D. G., ... Wallace, A. (2013). Examining the superstitions of sport fans: Types of superstitions, perceptions of impact, and relationship with team identification. Athletic Insight, 5, 21-44.

Wann, D. L., Inman, S., Ensor, C. L., Gates, R. D., & Caldwell, D. S. (1999). Assessing the psychological well-being of sport fans using the Profile of Mood States: The importance of team identification. International Sports Journal, 3, 81-90.

Wann, D. L., Keenan, B., & Page, L. (2009). Testing the Team Identification--Social Psychological Health Model: Examining non-marquee sports, seasonal differences, and multiple teams .Journal of Sport Behavior, 32, 112-124.

Wann, D. L., Koch, K., Knoth, T., Fox, D., Aljubaily, H., & Lantz, C. D. (2006). The impact of team identification on biased predictions of player performance. The Psychological Record, 56, 55-66.

Wann, D. L., Melnick, M. J., Russell, G. W., & Pease, D. G. (2001). Sport fans: The psychology and social impact of spectators. New York: Routledge.

Wann, D. L., & Pierce, S. (2005). The relationship between sport team identification and social well-being: Additional evidence supporting the Team Identification--Social Psychological Health Model. North American Journal of Psychology, 7, 117-124.

Wann, D. L., Pierce, S., Padgett, B., Evans, A., Krill, K., & Romay, A. (2003). Relations between sport team identification and optimism. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 97, 803-804.

Wann, D. L., & Polk, J. (2007). The positive relationship between sport team identification and belief in the trustworthiness of others. North American Journal of Psychology, 9, 251-256.

Wann, D. L., Rogers, K., Dooley, K., & Foley, M. (2011). Applying the Team Identification --Social Psychological Health Model to older sport fans. The International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 72, 303-315.

Wann, D. L., Waddill, P. J., Polk, J., & Weaver, S. (2011). The Team Identification--Social Psychological Health Model: Sport fans gaining connections to others via sport team identification. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 15, 75-89.

Wann, D. L., Walker, R. G., Cygan, J., Kawase, I., & Ryan, J. (2005). Further replication of the relationship between team identification and psychological well-being: Examining non-classroom settings. North American Journal of Psychology, 7, 361-366.

Wann, D. L., & Weaver, S. (2009). Understanding the relationship between sport team identification and dimensions of social well-being. North American Journal of Psychology, 11, 219-230.

Wilson, S. M., Grieve, F. G., Ostrowski, S., Mienaltowski, A., & Cyr, C. (2013). Roles of team identification and game outcome in sport fan superstitious behaviors. Journal of Sport Behavior, 36, 417-429.

Daniel L. Wann, Matthew Brasher, Danielle L. Thomas and Holly L. Scheuchner

Murray State University

Address correspondence to: Daniel L. Wann, Department of Psychology, Murray State University, Murray, KY 42071 or to dwann@murraystate.edu via Internet.

Table 1
Means, Standard Deviations, and Cronbach's Reliability Alphas for
all Measures

Measure                              M        SD     alpha

Team Identification (SSIS)         40.99    15.53     .949

Sport Fandom (SFQ)                 24.09    11.97     .945

Satisfaction with Social Life      26.61     6.86     .863
(SSLS)

Social Isolation (ESLI             10.82     3.65     .762
subscale)

Emotional Isolation                13.28     3.76     .669
(ESLI subscale)

Table 2
Pearson Correlations among Team Identification, Sport Fandom,
Emotional Loneliness, Social Loneliness, Satisfaction with Social
Life, and Membership on the Football Team

                        1          2         3        4       5    6
Team                    --
Identification (1)

Sport Fandom (2)     .56 ***       --

Satisfaction with     .33 **     .25 *       --
Social Life (3)

Social Isolation     -.33 **     -.22 *    -.26 *     --
(4)

Emotional             -.22 *      -.17     -31 **            --
Isolation (5)

Member of Football   -.42 ***   -.53 ***   -.22 *   -.26 *   .16   --
Team (6) (1)

Notes: (1) Member of football team coded as 1 = yes, 2 = no. * = p <
.05; ** p < .01; *** = p < .001.