Reconceptualizing indicants of sport perfectionism as a function of gender.

Anshel, Mark H. ; Kim, Jwa K. ; Henry, Ruth 等

Frost, Marten, Lahart, and Rosenblate (1990) define perfectionism as "the setting of excessively high standards of performance in conjunction with a tendency to make overly critical self-evaluations" (p. 450). Perfectionism is considered a stable pattern of thinking and behavior that changes relatively little over time, as opposed to a measure of a person's state at any particular moment (Anshel & Eom, 2002; Antony & Swinson, 1998). Perfectionism may be viewed as both desirable (adaptive) and undesirable (maladaptive, or neurotic). According to Enns and Cox (2002) and Flett and Hewitt (2005), adaptive perfectionism reflects setting reasonably challenging and achievable goals, high personal standards, a strong desire to excel, self-forgiving of one's own mistakes, modifying standards in accordance with situational factors, striving for success in achievement settings, and enhanced levels of motivation. Maladaptive perfectionism, on the other hand, describes the tendency to set excessively high standards, be overly self-critical, and be extensively influenced by the approval of significant others, such as parents, teachers, and sports coaches. Individuals who are characterized as maladaptive perfectionists tend to exhibit exaggerated expectations, have a high fear of failure, and are less capable of coping with challenging situations. Perhaps not surprisingly, then, perfectionism has been traditionally perceived as negative, also referred to as undesirable, abnormal, neurotic, maladaptive or dysfunctional (Anshel & Mansouri, 2005; Blatt, 1995; Hamachek, 1978; Suddarth & Slaney, 2001; Terry-Short, Owens, & Slade, 1995). Maladaptive perfectionism "is instrumental in a variety of psychopathologies and adjustment problems" (Flett, Sawatzsy, & Hewitt, 1995). Some of these problems have implications for competitive sport.

The study of perfectionism in competitive sport has gained increased popularity by researchers in recent years (e.g., Flett & Hewitt, 2005; Stoeber & Eismann, 2007). These authors contend that perfectionism can best be understood, measured, and interpreted for clinical practice only when we understand the implications for conceptualizing perfectionism in both positive and negative forms. Flett and Hewitt view perfectionism as "primarily a negative factor that contributes to maladaptive outcomes among athletes and exercisers" (p. 14). Stoeber and Otto (2006) and Stober and Eismarm (2007) refer to positive and negative dimensions of perfectionism in sport as perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns, respectively. Perfectionistic strivings comprise characteristics of perfectionism described as normal, healthy, or adaptive (e.g., setting high personal standards, striving for perfection). Perfectionistic concerns, on the other hand, reflect the negative, maladaptive, or neurotic components of this construct (e.g., concern over mistakes, doubts about actions, overly critical evaluations of one's behavior, negative reactions to imperfections).

While numerous sport perfectionism studies in recent years have been concerned with identifying components of perfectionism, examining the adaptive and maladaptive dimensions, or perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns, of this construct, has received limited attention. For example, in a study of university level (elite) Canadian athletes, failure to meet personal standards, regardless of extreme expectations of both self and others, markedly contributed to increased frustration and anger (Dunn, Gotwals, & Cosgrove Dunn, 2005). The researchers speculated that fear, frustration and anxiety may lead to an increase in critical self-evaluations and lower self-esteem. Along these lines, Gotwals, Dunn, and Wayment (2003) found that low self-esteem among athletes was related to maladaptive perfectionism, specifically the dimensions concern over mistakes, parental criticism, and doubts about actions. Self-criticism as a perfectionism sub-dimension was not measured.

There are several unique attributes of skilled athletes that directly relate to perfectionism in both positive and negative forms. With respect to personal standards and self-criticism, for example, it is well known that athletes develop challenging performance standards and goals, and become self-critical when they do not meet those (often lofty) goals (Anshel, 2003). However, when goals are prescribed by others, or are set primarily to acquire approval from others, the motivation to achieve is markedly reduced, and this may lead to performance failure (Campbell & Di Paula, 2002).

In their sport perfectionism study, Anshel and Mansouri (2005) asserted that individuals in a competitive environment have high personal expectations, and that sport performance will more likely reflect those expectations. Although typically classified as adaptive in nature, the maladaptive effects of high personal standards may be intensified when the level of ability is incongruent with the projected goals (Flea & Hewitt, 2005; Hatzigeorgiadis, 2006). Negative (maladaptive) perfectionists may project unreachable standards, in which continued striving results in performance failure, feelings of inadequacy, and the loss of motivation and confidence in one's ability to succeed. These characteristics may be inherent in competitive sport.

Researchers have focused on the negative, or maladaptive, properties of perfectionism in competitive sport (e.g., Flett & Hewitt, 2005; Haase & Prapavessis, 2004; Ommundsen, Roberts, Lemyre, & Miller, 2005), and to a far lesser extent, in exercise settings (Anshel & Seipel, 2006). For example, Ommundsen et al. (2005) found that the combination of motivational climate, achievement goals, and perfectionism was significantly related to peer acceptance and quality of friendships among male and female soccer players. They speculated that unrealistic and excessive parental criticism and parental expectations might impel adolescent players to develop maladaptive perfectionistic tendencies. More ominously, Haase and Prapavessis (2004) and Hopkinson and Lock (2004) each found that perfectionism was significantly related to disordered eating among female athletes and dancers, respectively. Others (e.g., Flett & Hewitt, 2005; Frost & Henderson, 1991; Gotwals et al., 2003; Hall, Kerr, & Matthews, 1998) have concluded that perfectionism in sport is associated with severe anxiety among athletes, ostensibly due to excessive personal standards and the high expectations of the athletes' parents and coaches. In a study of Canadian ice hockey players, Vallance, Dunn, and Causgrove Dunn (2006) found that highly perfectionistic athletes anticipated significantly higher levels of anger following personal mistakes than low and moderately perfectionistic athletes. Hinton and Kubas (2005) found that perfectionism is more prevalent among athletes than their non-athlete peers. This suggests that either sports participation or level of competition may foster perfectionistic thinking among competitive athletes, or that individuals with perfectionistic tendencies are more likely to become higher skilled athletes. Taken together, several sport studies have examined the negative manifestations of perfectionism. One primary source of perfectionism is the individual's parents.

Children whose parents display affection only after their child meets their parents' excessive expectations (i.e., "perfect" behavior patterns) are likely to develop perfectionist behavioral tendencies or thought patterns (Flett, Hewitt, Oliver, & Macdonald, 2002; Hamecheck, 1978; Missildine, 1963). Negative perfectionism is more likely to occur when parental praise, approval, and adoration is given only when the child behaves according to parental expectations. Perhaps not surprisingly, then, children whose parents have such high expectations are rarely satisfied with their performance, even if they "succeed," or win, in competitive conditions (Flett & Hewitt, 2005). In a rare study of parental influences among competitive athletes, McArdle and Duda (2004) found that the athlete's parents markedly contributed toward the development of perfectionism among athletes by promoting the athlete's disposition of ego-oriented goal attainment, that is, motivation based on winning rather than enjoyment of sport participation.

One source of expectations and perhaps subsequent perfectionist tendencies, specific to sport and heretofore under-addressed in the literature, is the coach. Coaches are instrumental in crafting and sustaining the learning environment in a sport context (Anshel, 2003). Previous studies of sport perfectionism (e.g., Anshel & Eom, 2002; Dunn, Cosgrove Dunn, & Syrotuik, 2002, Dunn, Cosgrove Dunn, Gotwals, Vallance, Craft, & Syrotuik, 2006a) have indicated an additional dimension of perfectionism that may supplement the existing dimensions as parental expectations and criticism in their "socially-prescribed" context (Hewitt & Flett, 1991). In sport, specifically, the perceived expectations of the coach can markedly affect athletic performance. It is apparent that athletic coaches jointly influence an athlete's expectations, perceptions, and other thought patterns that mirror characteristics of perfectionism (e.g., Anshel & Eom, 2002; Dunn et al., 2002; Dunn et al., 2005, 2006a).

Taken together, then, the collective findings of previous perfectionism in sport studies (e.g., Anshel & Eom, 2001; Anshel & Mansouri, 2005; Dunn et al., 2006a,b) suggest that perfectionism has three sources: the athlete (e.g., personal standards, concern over mistakes), the athlete's parents (e.g., perceived parental pressure, parental criticism), and the athlete's coach (e.g., perceived coach pressure, coach criticism).

Several sport-related studies in recent years have focused on generating valid measures of perfectionism among competitive athletes. Anshel and Eom (2002), for instance, found that concern over mistakes, personal standards, parental criticism, and coach criticism were the dimensions that best described perfectionism among competitive athletes; low correlations between the four dimensions indicated these dimensions were independent. The dimensions doubts about actions and organization were not represented.

Dunn et al. (2006a) attempted to establish construct validity for a sport-related instrument named the Sport Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, or Sport-MPS, on four independent samples of Canadian athletes. Participants included, respectively, 276 adolescent football players, 229 adolescent ice hockey players, 221 intercollegiate athletes from various team sports, and 121 adolescent female figure skaters. Their results confirmed evidence of four factors generalizable across samples that define perfectionism in competitive sport: personal standards, concern over mistakes, perceived parental pressure, and perceived coach pressure. Of particular importance is that "parents and coaches are central, yet separate, characters associated with perceived social pressure" (p. 73). Clearly, then, as Dunn et al. concluded, parents and coaches should be included in future measures of perfectionism, "not only in sport, but in other social-evaluative contexts as well" (p. 73). The authors did not examine gender differences, an area of sport-related perfectionism that has been virtually ignored by researchers.

Apparently, researchers have ignored the sub-dimension of self-criticism as a component of perfectionism. Reflecting their review of related literature, Flett and Hewitt (2005) assert that perfectionism, in general, is maladaptive. One indicant of this is excessive concern over mistakes leading to low self-esteem, low perceived athletic competence, and dissatisfaction with their sports performance. The authors claim "certain perfectionists are highly concerned with presenting an image of perfection to other people. Athletes with this tendency should be susceptive to a variety of negative outcomes" (p. 16). Gotwals et al. (2003) found that athletes who scored high on perfectionism tended to be concerned about their mistakes, doubted their actions, and perceived their parents as being critical of them. It is apparent, therefore, that one primary outcome of perfectionistic thinking in competitive sport would include self-criticism, particularly in response to the athlete's perception of not meeting high personal standards and the expectations of themselves and of others (e.g., parents, coaches, teammates, spectators). Yet, self-criticism has been ignored in past related sport psychology research and warrants further investigation.

The rationale for this study is based primarily on two issues. First, several sport perfectionism studies have generated various interpretations of this construct, with only a moderate degree of consistency about its dimensions and the items that represent these dimensions. Dunn, Gotwals, Causgrove Dunn, and Syrotuik (2006b) have concluded "there is currently a lack of research examining the potential influence of perfectionism upon athletes' performance-related cognitions and affect in sport" (p. 10). Along these lines, Flett and Hewitt (2002) contend, "there is a growing concern ... that the term perfectionism has a variety of meanings and that the same term is being used to refer to different concepts" (p. 13). For example, the authors contend there is a difference between the person's perfectionistic standards and the extent to which those standards have been reached, that is, the failure to attain perfection based on self-evaluation processes, at least among nonathletes. The sport perfectionism literature has not addressed this discrepancy. The second issue is that examining perfectionism in sport as a function of gender has received only scant attention by researchers.

Researchers have examined the role of gender in the development of perfectionist traits in the processes of social development, interpersonal relationships, friendship dynamics, and personality correlates. For example, Hewitt and Flett (2002) suggest possible gender differences in the way self-oriented perfectionism interacts with other personality characteristics. In particular, the researchers found self-oriented perfectionism among males was related to traits of hostility and arrogance, while self-oriented women tended to be agreeable and gregarious. In a study of 600 academically talented sixth grade students, as compared to a group of 418 non-gifted sixth graders from the same schools, Parker and Mills (1996) found that parental expectations for non-gifted girls was significantly lower than for non-gifted boys, whose results were statistically similar to all academically talented students. Total perfectionism scores were similar for gifted boys and girls, and were significantly higher than for non-gifted girls. Perfectionism, then, appears to differ as a function of gender, at least among non-athletes.

In a gender study of perfectionism and self-esteem and shame, Ashby, Rice, and Martin (2006) found that self-esteem and shame each mediated the association between perfectionism and depression for females, but not for males. In particular, higher self-esteem and lower feelings of shame were related to decreased perfectionism and depression. For men, shame mediated the perfectionism-depression relationship. The effect of perfectionism on self-esteem, however, did not lead to higher depression, as it did with female participants. It appears, then, that gender influences the association between perfectionism and other cognitive conditions, and likely mediates the development of perfectionism. Additional research on identifying the sources (and related dimensions) of perfectionism as a function of gender among competitive athletes is warranted. Unfortunately, any attempt to examine the role of gender in determining or developing perfectionism among competitive athletes must remain highly speculative at this point because of the paucity of data in this area.

One area of perfectionism research strongly suggests that gender differences are linked to body image. In their review of this literature, for example, Antony and Swinson (1998) concluded that perfectionism about one's (distorted) body image, clinically referred to as body dysmorphic disorder, and consequent eating disorders (e.g., anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa) were significantly more common among females than males. Perfectionistic thinking, therefore, may be strongly linked to body image problems. This suggests that genders may differ on the components of perfectionism within the context of competitive sport, and that recognizing individual differences between male and female athletes in clinical treatment appears warranted. This is not to suggest, however, that female athletes would necessarily score higher for perfectionism than their male peers.

Perfectionism is more prevalent under conditions of heightened emotion, such as anger (Vallance et al., 2006), and when a personally meaningful goal is at stake (Berkowitz & Harmon-Jones, 2004), conditions that are exacerbated by a person's dispositional competitiveness, or competitive orientation (Gill, 2002). Based on her review of related literature, Gill concluded "males typically scored higher than females on competitiveness and win orientation" (p. 362). Taken together, it would be plausible to speculate, therefore, that male athletes would demonstrate a greater degree of perfectionism in sport then their female counterparts, at least among non-elite competitors.

One dimension that was generated in earlier non-sport research, neatness/organization (Frost et al., 1990), has been ignored in sport psychology, primarily because Frost et al. found poor reliability among items in this sub-dimension. Second, relatively few sport psychology researchers have distinguished between positive and negative aspects of perfectionism, an important omission since each has markedly different implications for clinical interventions. Finally, as indicated earlier, there is a paucity of related research that has examined perfectionism as a function of gender.

Thus, the rationale for this study is based on two issues. First, several sport perfectionism studies have generated various interpretations of this construct, with only a moderate degree of consistency about its dimensions and the items that represent these dimensions. Dunn et al. (2006b) have concluded "there is currently a lack of research examining the potential influence of perfectionism upon athletes' performance-related cognitions and affect in sport" (p. 10). Along these lines, Flett and Hewitt (2002) contend, "there is a growing concern ... that the term perfectionism has a variety of meanings and that the same term is being used to refer to different concepts" (p. 13). For example, the authors contend there is a difference between the person's perfectionistic standards and the extent to which those standards have been reached, that is, the failure to attain perfection based on self-evaluation processes, at least among nonathletes. The sport perfectionism literature has not addressed this discrepancy. The second issue is that examining perfectionism in sport as a function of gender has received only scant attention by researchers. Given the increased proliferation of female sports participants and the need to encourage females of all ages to engage in sports activities to control obesity, determining evidence of perfectionism between males and females is warranted.

The purposes of this study, then, were to identify dimensions of perfectionism among skilled competitive athletes (who had competed on at least one high school team), as determined by exploratory factor analysis, and then to compare genders on each dimension. Despite the virtual absence of existing perfectionism in sport research literature on gender differences (Antony & Swinson, 1998), it was hypothesized that male athletes would exhibit higher perfectionism scores than their female counterparts. This is due, primarily, to previous findings that males tend to be more competitive in sport settings than their female counterparts, at least among nonelite level competitors (Gill, 2002).

This study was conducted in two stages. In the first stage, coherent items were selected based on the results of an exploratory factor analysis (EFA), along with item evaluation from a group of experts, and selected items were evaluated with Cronbach's alpha for internal consistency of each factor. The second stage consisted of computing multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) to determine differences between male and female athletes for each factor (dimension) of perfectionism generated by the EFA.

Method

Participants

The data used in this study were collected from 322 college students (142 males and 180 females), ranging in age from 18-31 years (M = 22.5 yrs, SD = 6.32). The participants, all of whom volunteered for this study, attended one of two universities, located 12 miles apart, in the southeastern U.S., and met the criterion of having competed on at least one high school sports team. Most of these participants were physical education majors, and have continued to compete as intramural athletes on their respective college campuses. Demographic data indicated that the athletes had participated in both team (n = 267) and individual sports (n = 55).

Inventory Development

The Likert-type inventory generated for this study, called the Sport Perfectionism Scale (SPS), reflected the four dimensions of perfectionism depicted in the previous sport psychology literature. Three related studies, Anshel and Eom (2002), Anshel and Mansouri (2005), and Dunn et al. (2002), provided the primary sources of items for generating the current sport related perfectionism inventory, each with highly similar factors and items. As indicated earlier, Anshel and Eom (2002) proposed four factors, each consisting of eight items. These were concern over mistakes, personal standards, parental expectations and criticism, and coach expectations and criticism. In their study of perfectionism and goal orientation, Dunn et al. (2002) also found four latent constructs, including concern over mistakes, personal standards, perceived parental pressure, and perceived coach pressure. In addition, selected items were adapted from the Frost et al. (1990) FMPS to fit a sport framework and, as explained by Dunn et al. (2002), "modified to make them contextually relevant" (p. 382). An example of this feature was a factor heretofore ignored by previous researchers in this area, neatness and organization.

Unlike items in previous related studies, we added items that addressed a factor in the Frost et al. (1990) FMPS called neatness and organization. Based on the clinical work of Loehr (1982, 1990) and a review of related literature by Anshel (2003), it is apparent that highly skilled athletes engage in pre-game and game rituals that require planning, extensive practice, and time management/organization skills. To Loehr, rituals help athletes manage unpleasant thoughts as an integral part of both mental and physical preparation in meeting performance demands. Rituals also reduce information processing load that allow attentional focusing on the most relevant environmental features. It is plausible to speculate that highly organized athletes would also show high perfectionist tendencies.

Three researchers familiar with the perfectionism in sport literature reviewed and reached 100 percent consensus for including each item in the scale's final version. The scale consisted of 41 items that described four factors obtained from the extant perfectionism in sport literature. Items ranged from 1 (not at all like me) to 5 (very much like me). Scale items are listed in the Appendix and results section.

Procedure

Data were collected in classroom settings (with permission of the class instructor) among undergraduate majors in physical education and sport/exercise science at both universities. Only athletes who had competed on at least one high school team, who were designated as "skilled competitors," met the primary criterion for participation in the study. They were informed that the questions concerned their "attitudes about sport competition," that their responses would be kept confidential, and that the inventory would be anonymous.

Data Analyses

An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was conducted on 41 items to determine the initial factor structure. Factors were not predetermined. Methods of analyzing the validity of these scales have focused on factor analysis that identifies the underlying latent traits, a method used in numerous previous studies in the perfectionism in sport research literature (e.g., Anshel & Eom, 2002; Ashby & Rice, 2002; Dunn, Dunn, & Syrotuik, 2002; Gotwals, Dunn, & Wayment, 2003; Haase & Prapavessis, 2004; Harvey, Pallant, & Harvey, 2004). In the present study, exploratory factor analysis provided a measure of item reduction by suggesting for elimination items that did not load at .50 or above onto any of the factors (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). In order to evaluate the internal consistency of each factor, Cronbach's alpha was computed for each factor. The reduced items forming each factor were then compared with a one-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) to ascertain evidence of gender differences for the perfectionism factors.

Results

Exploratory Factor Analysis and Cronbach's Alphas

The initial EFA yielded two choices in terms of the number of factors; a nine-factor solution based the default eigenvalue of 1 (58% of variance explained) and a four-factor solution with the eigenvalue of 2 along with a clear SCREE-elbow (43% of variance explained). The four-factor solution was chosen for further interpretation. The percentage of variance for each of the four factors was 19.02, 11.23, 7.72, and 5.14% respsectively. The factors were rotated through the PROMAX (oblique) rotation method, with items numbered 1 through 41 based on the EFA results. With the combination of a minimum factor loading value of .50 and a careful examination of each item, items were selected for each factor. This procedure eliminated 10 items resulting in a four-factor solution with 31 items. The Appendix lists the final set of 31 items.

Factor 1 originally consisted of 12 items. Sample items were "Mom or dad are happy only if my performance is outstanding," and "Mom or dad expect me to be perfect in sport." Item 11, "Either parent always had very high expectations of my future performance in sport," and item 12, "Mom or dad set very high standards for me," were eliminated due to low factor loadings (.39 and .27, respectively). Thus, factor 1 was labeled Parental Expectations and Criticism (PE/C). This factor is an extension of the previous literature that links both expectations and criticism of the athlete's parents within one factor.

Factor 2 included nine items. Sample items included "Even the smallest mistake bothers me when I am competing," "I criticize myself very hard after making an error," and "Even after I win, I do not feel happy about my performance." Item 21 ("I never feel I have trained enough") was deleted because its factor loading (.36) fell below the criterion of .50. Thus, factor 2 was labeled Self-Criticism (SC). Again, this factor adds a component not previously addressed by researchers, the prominent role of self-criticism, in addition to (or rather than) personal standards, as a feature of perfectionism.

Factor 3 included five items. Sample items were "Neatness is very important to me," "Being organized is very important to me," and "I try to be a neat (tidy) person." Factor 3 revealed both clear logical unity and high factor loading values, ranging from .74 to .80, and was labeled Neatness and Organization (N/O). This factor has been absent from previous sport perfectionism studies; however, it was strongly represented in the EFA with respect to coherency of items and their respective factor loadings.

Factor 4 included eight items. Sample items were "My coach would become angry with me or punish me if I performed below his expectations," and "My coach rarely compliments me on my performance." The rest of items in factor 4 were all related to coach's expectations and criticism and showed high factor loading values, ranging from .73 and .52. Thus, factor 4 was labeled Coach Expectations/Criticism (CE/C). Not unlike factor 1 that describes parental influences on perfectionism, factor 4 combines both expectations and criticism by an important "significant other" that is unique to competitive sport, the athlete's coach.

The Cronbach's alpha value was computed for each factor and for the whole battery of items to ascertain internal consistency. It was found that the complete perfectionism scale was relatively well structured with a Cronbach's alpha value of .85. Cronbach alphas for factors 1 through 4, respectively, were .85, .83, .87, and .79.

Group Comparisons

To determine gender differences among the dimensions of perfectionism, a one-way MANOVA was computed to compare genders for the linear combination of four dimensions (factors). The MANOVA results indicated a significant gender effect for the linear combination of four factors, F (4, 317) = 6.00, p< .0001, Wilk's Lambda = .930. Follow-up univariate ANOVAs indicated gender differences for factor 1 (Parental Expectations and Criticism), F (1,320) = 12.57, p=.0005; effect size (Cohen's d) = .40. Female athletes scored (M=23.23) significantly higher than male athletes (M=20.54) on factor 1. However, male athletes scored significantly higher (19.78) than female athletes (18.25) on Factor 3 (Neatness and Organization), F ( 1, 320) = 10.97,p=.001, d=.37. Factors 2 (Self-Criticism) and 4 (Coach Expectations and Criticism) showed no significant gender differences.

Inter-factor correlations, listed in Table 2, indicated that the dimensions of perfectionism were relatively independent. The inter-factor correlation coefficients ranged from .003 through .21 in the absolute value, except the correlation coefficients between Parental Expectations & Criticism and Coach Expectations & Criticism (r = .31), and between Self-criticism, and Coach Expectations & Criticism (r = .40).

Discussion

The purposes of this study were to identify dimensions of perfectionism among skilled competitive athletes (who had competed on at least one of their high school teams), as determined by exploratory factor analysis, and then to compare genders on each dimension. It was predicted, based on the extant non-sport literature, that male athletes would reflect a higher degree of perfectionism on all dimensions than their female counterparts. The results indicated that the four factors (dimensions) identified were parental expectations and criticism (PE/C, factor 1), personal standards and self-criticism (SC, factor 2), neat/organization (N/O, factor 3), and coach expectations and criticism (CE/C, factor 4). Gender comparisons on each dimension indicated that females demonstrated higher perfectionism for PE/C, while males scored significantly higher for N/O. No gender differences were noted for SC and CE/C.

The designation of perfectionism dimensions in this study formed a clear extension of the existing sport-related literature. Specifically, the concept of self-criticism, which was juxtaposed with personal standards in this study, has not been previously labeled and examined in the sport perfectionism research literature. This is surprising, since self-criticism has received attention by non-sport researchers. For instance, Dunkley, Zuroff, and Blankstein (:2003) found that self-critical perfectionism was associated with maladaptive tendencies, such as low perceived social support and hassles. The researchers also found that self-critical perfectionists were emotionally reactive to stressors that implied possible failure, loss of control, and criticism from others, all of which are relevant to situations common among competitive athletes.

Slaney, Franze, and Rice (2004) found that maladaptive perfectionist scores were strongly correlated with self-critical depression. Maladaptive perfectionism among athletes reflects two characteristics that are relevant to the current study: setting overly high standards and being self-critical if the individual fails to meet these standards (Enns & Cox, 2002), or "failure associated with harsh self-criticism" (p. 51). The present results indicated that both genders were statistically similar on this (SC) dimension. Thus, it appears that items that depict self-criticism warrant inclusion in future perfectionism in sport research.

Future researchers might want to consider reexamining self-criticism from a clinical perspective that reflects one source of an athlete's perfectionistic cognitive and behavioral tendencies (Enns & Cox, 2002; Flett & Hewitt, 2002). Self-criticism in competitive sport, also called negative self-talk, self-blame, and rumination, is deleterious to proper attentional focusing and performance in sport settings (Anshel, 2003; Flett & Hewitt, 2005). Practitioners could address individual differences on determining sources of perfectionism and possible treatment (Flett & Hewitt, 2005). The consistent failure in meeting expectations, despite the fact that expectations are often unattainable, may cause an individual to increase self-blame and discontinue participation in activity (Dunn et al., 2006). These outcomes are particularly important in competitive sport because past studies have indicated they are detrimental to high quality performance and may lead to dropping out (Anshel, 2003). Apparently, this problem exists for both genders.

Another result of this study indicated no significant gender differences for SC and CE/ C. These results are supported by previous studies (see Gill, 2004, for a review) indicating that highly skilled "female athletes possess more masculine personality characteristics than do female nonathletes" (p. 482). Gill contends "competitive athletics demands instrumental, assertive (certainly competitive) behaviors" (p. 482). Perhaps the role of competitive achievement orientation may be a manifestation of parental expectations and criticism in fostering perfectionism among highly skilled female athletes. This confirms previous gender in sport studies indicating similar personality characteristics of skilled male and female athletes, particularly with respect to goal orientation and need achievement (Gill, 1993, 2002, 2004). Thus, perhaps it is not surprising that male and female athletes are similarly susceptible to the high standards and critical feedback of their respective coaches as a source of perfectionistic thinking. This conclusion may carry over to perfectionism in sport.

That females had significantly higher scores for parental expectations and criticism may indicate that female athletes are even more influenced by their parents than their male counterparts. According to Parker (2002), parents' expectations and criticism reflect a common experience among perfectionist children, in which parents push their children to achieve at exceptional levels. It is important that these adults create a balance between high, but attainable expectations and standards, while offering both praise and critical feedback that reflect performance quality, as well as performance outcome (Anshel, 2003). Maladaptive perfectionism in sport may result in low participation satisfaction, and may lead to dropping out due to a dearth of an athlete's perceived competence, gratification, and a sense of fulfillment as a sport participant (Ashby & Rice, 2002; Dunn et al., 2002).

In summary, the inclusion of new dimensions within the unique context of competitive sport should be considered in future research. One area of perfectionism that is unique to sport concerns the athlete's coach, who apparently is a source of perfectionism among athletes of both genders, as confirmed by the results of several previous related studies (Anshel & Eom, 2002; Dunn, Dunn, & Syrotuik, 2002; Vallance, Dunn, & Causgrove-Dunn, 2006). The role of adult "significant others" (i.e., parents and coaches) in developing perfectionistic thinking is very apparent in competitive sport. Perhaps, not surprisingly, the role of parents and coaches of perfectionist athletes is consistent with findings from the extant related sport psychology literature (e.g., Anshel & Eom, 2002; Dunn et al., 2002).

The dimension SC, which did not differ as a function of gender in this study, often reflects the athlete's irrational need to achieve at a level that may be unrealistic. Items in this factor reflect an irrational need to achieve and an overly favorable self-evaluation (Flett & Hewitt, 2005). If these irrational syndromes are persistent, they are a clear manifestation of maladaptive or negative perfectionism. Sources of maladaptive perfectionism, particularly based on the SC dimension, include the athlete's significant others (Blankstein & Dunkley, 2002), in this study, the athlete's coaches and parents. This effect appears exacerbated if the adult's mentoring style is authoritative (Flett, Hewitt, & Singer, 1995). However, results of the present study, in which females demonstrated higher perfectionism for PE/C than males, suggest that female athletes may be more affected by autocratic coaching and parenting on developing perfectionistic thinking then their male counterparts, at least for higher-skilled, adult-aged competitors. Nevertheless, because the nature of competitive sport inherently promotes interindividual and intra-individual comparisons, the tendency to strive to succeed in achievement settings and demonstrate perfectionistic thinking is exacerbated for both males and females (Leonard, 1998). Clinical research among competitive athletes is needed to confirm these speculations and to examine the effectiveness of interventions to help control it.

Finally, the factor, neatness/organization, has been absent from previous perfectionism in sport research. Sample items included "being organized is very important to me" and "neatness is very important to me." Frost et al. (1990) deleted this factor in their measure of total perfectionism because "the organization subscale was the least highly correlated with the other subscales of the MPS and the other measures of perfectionism" (p. 458). "For this reason," they state, "these items were not used in the calculation of the overall perfectionism score" in their initial and subsequent research (p. 458). In a study of college student exercisers, Anshel and Seipel (2006) found that individuals who created a plan and were organized in theft approach to exercise exhibited greater levels of adherence. Planning and organization were also positively correlated with personal standards (achievement goals).

The results of the present study indicated that N/O was highly cohesive, with extraordinarily high factor loadings. We speculate that athletes who possess highly perfectionistic thought and behavioral patterns are also characterized by high organization skills. This is manifested in sport by developing routines that virtually assure optimal mental and physical preparation. For example, elite athletes are characterized by disciplined thought patterns under stress and developing consistency by the use of mental checklists, even between points in competitive tennis (Loehr, 1990).

An explanation of the finding that males scored significantly higher than females on this factor can only be speculative. For the athletes in this study, who shared the characteristic of having competed on their high school team, perhaps male competitors were more likely to have developed sport-related rituals than their female counterparts. It is known, however, that nonelite male athletes are more competitive than female athletes, although sex differences on characteristics of perfectionism, particularly of this dimension, is apparently non-existent, at least among elite athletes (Dunn et al., 2005, 2006; Gill, 1992). This area warrants additional study.

One area of the extant perfectionism in sport literature that remains controversial is whether perfectionism includes positive, or desirable, properties. As indicated earlier, perfectionism has both desirable (adaptive) and undesirable (maladaptive) properties, however, researchers have not sufficiently explored the dichotomous nature of this construct. In the context of competitive sport, positive perfectionism would reflect maintaining high personal standards, as indicated by setting challenging and achievable goals, a strong desire to excel and improve, not being too self-critical, and altering self-expectations in accordance with situational factors, particularly in achievement settings (Enns & Cox, 2002). Maladaptive perfectionism in sport, however, describes setting excessively high standards, being overly self-critical, especially after mistakes, and being extensively influenced by the approval of parents and coaches (Anshel & Mansouri, 2005). Individuals characterized as maladaptive, or neurotic, perfectionists tend to exhibit exaggerated expectations, have a high fear of failure, and are less capable of coping with challenging situations. In their study, Stoeber and Otto (2006) concluded that "healthy perfectionists show higher levels of positive characteristics compared to unhealthy perfectionists and nonperfectionists" and that "self-oriented perfectionistic strivings are positive if perfectionists are not overly concerned about mistakes and negative evaluations by others" (p. 219). Enns and Cox (2002) conclude, in their critique of the perfectionism self-report research, that researchers need to clearly delineate the positive and negative aspects of perfectionism to optimize risk assessment for psychopathology and for improving our understanding of this construct.

Participants in the current study were a convenience sample of former high school athletes, as opposed to current, college sports competitors. The researchers acknowledge the inherent limitation of retrospective (subjective) recall procedures. However, two procedures provide appropriate psychometric validity of the data that enhance recall accuracy. First, respondents in the current sample were asked to recall actual, not simulated, events in their previous sport experiences. As Schwarzer and Schwarzer (1996) contend, "nothing can replace real-life events for ecological validity of the assessment procedure" (p. 129). Second, perfectionism is commonly viewed as a personality trait, not typically susceptible to inaccurate recall. To Beehr and McGrath (1996), dispositional assessment (as opposed to situational assessment) has stronger psychometric properties, partly because the individual is asked to reflect general feelings about their experiences as former athletes as opposed to specific situations that are more susceptible to forgetting (e.g., "neatness is very important to me," "My mom or dad treated me differently after winning than after losing in sport"). Most studies that consist of examining psychological dispositions have included a long-term subjective recall procedure. Recall accuracy would likely be improved through personal interview techniques (Enns & Cox, 2002). Further research is warranted in developing a validated inventory that lends further insights into the development and manifestation of both healthy and unhealthy perfectionism in competitive sport.

Appendix

Perfection in Sport Scale (PSS) Items

Factor 1: Parental Expectations and Criticism (PE/C)

1. Mom or dad was happy only if my performance is outstanding.

2. Mom or dad expected me to be perfect in sport.

3. I never felt like I could meet my parents' standards.

4. Mom or dad never tended to criticize my performance, even after complimenting me.

5. I never felt like I could meet my parents' expectations.

6. As a child, I was punished for doing things less than perfect.

7. Either parent always expected excellence from me as an athlete.

8. Mom or dad never tried to understand the reasons for my mistakes.

9. My mom or dad treated me differently after winning than after losing in sport.

10. After winning or performing successfully, at least one of my parents pointed out something I did not do well during the competition.

Factor 2: Self-Criticism (SC)

11. Even the smallest mistake bothered me when I am competing.

12. I criticized myself very hard after making an error.

13. If I won the competition or generally performed well, I still tended to criticize myself if I have made an error.

14. Making a mistake, even a "small" one, bothered me.

15. I felt very upset or angry if I made a physical or mental error during the contest.

16. I always strive for perfection in my sport performance.*

17. When I evaluate myself as an athlete, I tend to think about my weaknesses rather than about my strenths.

18. Even after I win, I do not feel happy about my performance.

Factor 3: (Neatness/Organization; N/O)

19. Neatness is very important to me.

20. I try to be a neat (tidy) person.

21. I am a neat (tidy) person.

22. Being organized is very important to me.

23. I am not an organized person.

Factor 4: Coach Expectations and Criticism (PE/C)

24. My coach would become angry with me or punish me if I performed below his expectations.

25. My coach rarely compliments me on my performance.

26. My coach does not usually try to understand the reasons for my mistakes.

27. My coach usually expects me to perform perfectly.

28. I can rarely meet my coach's expectations of me.

29. No matter how well I performed, my coach asks me to perform better.

30. I would not refer to my coach as particularly sensitive.

31. Even after I perform successfully, my coach tends to point out my mistakes during competition.

* Marginally associated with self-criticism

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Mark H. Anshel

Middle Tennessee State University

Jwa K. Kim

Middle Tennessee State University

Ruth Henry

Lipscomb University

Address Correspondence to: Mark H. Anshel, Ph.D., Department of Health and Human Performance (joint appointment, Psychology Department), Middle Tennesee State University, Murfreesboro, TN, 37132. Phone: 615-898-2812. E-mail: manshel@mtsu.edu.

Table 1. Rotated Factor Loadings after the PROMAX rotation

Items   Factor 1   Factor 2   Factor 3   Factor 4

1         .74
2         .73
3         .70
4         .69
5         .67
6         .61
7         .61
8         .58
9         .56
10        .56
11 *      .39
12 *      .27
13                   .81
14                   .76
15                   .74
16                   .74
17                   .73
18                   .54
19                   .51
20                   .50
21 *                 .36
22                              .80
23                              .79
24                              .77
25                              .75
26                              .74
27                                         .73
28                                         .67
29                                         .63
30                                         .63
31                                         .60
32                                         .57
33                                         .54
34                                         .52
35 *                            .32
36 *                            .49
37 *                            .42
38 *                 .35
39 *                            .40
40 *                 .38
41 *                 .40

* These items were deleted from the scale due to either low
factor loadings or lack of coherence.

Table 2. Inter factor correlation among four factors

            Factor 1   Factor 2   Factor 3   Factor 4

Factor 1        1.00        .21      -.003        .31
Factor 2                   1.00        .18        .40
Factor 3                              1.00        .09
Factor 4                              1.00

F1 = Parental Expectations and Criticism;
F2 = Self-criticism;
F3 = Neatness and Organization;
F4 = Coach Expectations and Criticism