Effects of motivational music on work output and affective responses during sub-maximal cycling of a standardized perceived intensity.

Elliott, Dave ; Carr, Sam ; Savage, Dave 等

Researchers (e.g., Triandis, 1977) examining the antecedents of exercise adherence have suggested that affective responses might exert an influence on individuals' intention to exercise. According to Godin and Shephard (1990) the affective dimension typically refers to individuals' emotional responses to the thought of adopting behaviors and feelings elicited by the change in behavior (e.g., is the behavior perceived as pleasant/unpleasant or interesting/ boring?). Crucial to the development of such affective patterns are previous experiences of a given behavior, with positive experiences engendering positive feelings and a subsequent desire to repeat the behavior (Godin, 1994). Hence, it is important that participation in exercise sessions is a positive experience for individuals (Godin, 1994).

In ensuring that exercise is shaped into a positive experience, researchers (e.g., Hardy & Rejeski, 1989) have suggested that attention should be paid to both "how one feels" and "what one feels" during the exercise experience. The former refers to individual subjective feelings during exercise that may be characterized by moods or feelings of pleasure or displeasure (Hardy & Rejeski, 1989). The latter refers to subjective estimates of physical work intensity, also considered to be of major importance to those concerned with exercise prescription (Rejeski, 1985). It is suggested that both these factors play a role in exercise adherence (Rejeski, 1985). One strategy that has shown potential in positively influencing both of these subjective components during exercise experiences is the application of music. For example, from assessment of participants' mood during exercise, Boutcher and Trenske (1990), Brownley, McMurray, and Hackney (1995), and Karageorghis and Terry (2000) have all indicated that music appears to elicit positive affective feelings during exercise. Hence, improved affective responses as a result of the application of music during exercise could increase the likelihood of individuals attending exercise sessions.

However, some authors (e.g., Perkins & Epstein, 1988) have contended that attendance may be an insufficient measure of adherence. According to Perkins and Epstein (1988), factors such as the duration and intensity of exercise also require consideration. That is, individuals may be required to reach objectively defined levels of exercise intensity or duration in specific exercise sessions in order for adherence to a given exercise program to be evident. As such, the possibility exists that individuals may, for example, fulfil attendance criteria but may not be meeting the specified intensities or duration. Related to this, a body of evidence suggests that music may also be a viable aid for individuals' to reach specified levels of exercise intensity. For example, Szabo, Small and Leigh (1999) and Karageorghis and Jones (2000) found that music could improve progressive cycle endurance. However, such findings are not conclusive, with numerous studies also suggesting that music has little impact on work rates (e.g., Dorney, Goh, & Lee, 1992; Becker, Chambliss, Marsh & Montemayor, 1995).

In response to such contradictions, Karageorghis and Terry (1997) specified the need to address the methodological designs employed to examine musical effects. They suggested that an awareness of factors such as type of music employed, socio-cultural influences and appropriate dependent measures was required. Accordingly, Karageorghis, Terry and Lane (1999) emphasized the need for theory-driven research in this area and proposed the Conceptual Model for the Prediction of Responses to Motivational Asynchronous Music in Exercise and Sport. The model indicates that particular attention should be given to both musical factors (i.e., volume, tempo, rhythm, melody, lyrics) and personal factors (i.e., socio-cultural background and personal meaning) when selecting musical accompaniment to exercise. Attending to these factors may allow music to be termed motivational (i.e., a piece of music that inspires or stimulates physical activity). It is claimed that if music can be described as being motivational and consideration is given to appropriate methodological design, research outcomes will be more consistent and supportive of the hypothesis that music can positively influence physical activity.

Further developments have led to the formulation of an operational rating inventory labeled the Brunel Music Rating Inventory (BMRI; Karageorghis, Terry & Lane, 1999). It is suggested that the BMRI provides sport scientists and practitioners with a valid method of evaluating the motivational qualities of music in accordance with the predictions of Karageorghis and his colleagues.

Research employing the above framework, in conjunction with the BMRI, in sport and exercise situations has proved to be encouraging. Specifically, motivational music (as identified by BMRI ratings) has been found to increase aerobic endurance (Karageorghis & Jones, 2000), isometric muscular endurance (Karageorghis & Lee, 2001), and in-exercise affective states (Karageorghis & Terry, 1999), to reduce perceptions of effort (Karageorghis & Terry, 1999), and to induce pre- and in-task flow states (Karageorghis & Terry, 1999; Karageorghis & Deeth 2002).

In summary, evidence exists to support the notion that, where appropriate consideration is given to relevant factors, music can create a more positive exercise experience and may also positively influence participants' work output. However, these factors may function antagonistically. That is, participants need a positive exercise experience, yet may also need to increase objective intensity in order to meet specific intensity demands. Given that research has suggested that in-exercise work intensity may be negatively associated with in-exercise feelings and mood (e.g., Hardy & Rejeski, 1989), it may be that as objective intensity increases then a potential forfeiture is individuals' feeling states. Unlike previous studies that have been conducted in this area the current study did not employ objective methods in order to standardize exercise intensity (e.g., Boutcher & Trenske, 1990; Brownley, McMurray, & Hackney, 1995). Rather, this study standardized perceptions of effort so that participants perceived that they were working at a given intensity. This way, an important affective component of the subjective exercise experience had been controlled, whilst potentially allowing for a degree of variation in objective output.

Subsequently, we aimed to discern whether, although participants were working at a given perceived intensity, they would actually register greater work-output with the application of motivational music without registering any conscious awareness of increases in objective effort (due to the fact that they were exercising at a standardized perceived intensity). In addition, we also aimed to ascertain whether any increases in work-output elicited by motivational music would relate to a detriment in feeling states.

Method

Music selection

Initially, 14 musical selections were identified in accordance with the following criteria: Tempo. Tempo is considered to be one of the most powerful elements of music (Gundlauch, 1935; Karageorghis & Terry, 1997). If tempi of tracks are not reasonably similar then differential responses to musical selections may well be a response to this component alone and not the additional components of the model proposed by Karageorghis et al. (1999). That is, internal validity of the BMRI rating procedures could be compromised in that individuals' responses to items may simply reflect their preference for a given tempo and not the motivational quality of the specific musical selection under scrutiny. According to Iwanaga (1995) individuals tend to prefer tempi that are congruent with their heart rate. In order to ascertain a probable heart rate range for this study, a pilot study was conducted. Specifically, six participants were required to cycle at an RPE (Borg, 1971) of '13' for 12-minutes and average heart rates during exercise were recorded. It was identified that participants' mean heart rate during steady state exercise was approximately 132 beats per minute. Although, LeBlanc, Colman, McCrary, Sherrill and Malin (1988) disagree with Iwanaga's contentions, these researchers have suggested that tempi of approximately 134 beats per minute are considered to be favorable. Hence, for this study tracks possessing a tempo of approximately 130bpm were selected. Although tempi were reasonably similar, the accentuation of the tempo differed between selections. It was therefore assumed that this would influence the motivational qualities of this element of the music.

Musical idiom. Karageorghis and Terry (1997) are critical of including contrasting idioms into music research because subject bias towards or against a particular style may have a powerful effect on responses to music. Again, such bias is likely to compromise the internal validity of the BMRI rating procedures. In this study tracks were chosen so that they all possessed a consistent electronic bass beat and were therefore categorized as being dance music.

Cultural appropriateness and familiarity. For the reasons stated above, measures were taken to ensure a degree of cultural appropriateness and familiarity within the musical selections. Specifically, all musical selections had appeared in the British music charts within the last year and all participants involved in the study were required to have a "liking" of the musical idiom used.

Rating selected tracks for their motivational qualities

The 14 identified musical selections were therefore reasonably similar in terms of their tempo, musical idiom, cultural appropriateness, and familiarity. To assess any generalizable differences in the motivational qualities of these musical selections the BMRI (Karageorghis et al., 1999) was employed. Specifically, the 13-item BMRI is based around the Revised Conceptual Framework for Prediction of Responses to Motivational Asynchronous Music in Exercise and Sport (Karageorghis et al., 1999) and consists of sub-scales designed to assess the motivational qualities of rhythmic response, musicality, cultural impact, and association of various musical selections. Participants are required to rate the motivational quality of each of the 13items on a 10-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (Not at all motivating) to 10 (Extremely motivating). Examples of items from each scale are "Tempo (beat)" (assesses rhythmic response sub-scale), "Melody" (assesses musicality), "The artist" (assesses cultural impact), and "Association of music with a film/video" (assesses association). The instrument has been demonstrated to possess adequate reliability, validity, and factor structure (Karageorghis et al., 1999).

Participants for music rating procedures

Participants involved in the music rating procedures were 55 undergraduates attending Universities in the UK. Specifically, there were 29 males (M = 21.6 years, SD = 2.3) and 26 females (M = 20.9 years, SD = 2.5). All participants were of similar cultural background in that they originated from the UK and had a "liking" of mainstream dance music.

Equipment for music rating procedures

The 14 initially identified musical selections were recorded onto a TDK, FE ferric 90 audiotape. Music was played to participants through a Tandberg R822 Audio Tutor cassette player. Musical selections were rated for their motivational quotient through the implementation of the BMRI (Karageorghis et al., 1999).

Music rating procedures

Initially it was ensured that all participants expressed a "liking" of mainstream dance music. Any individual expressing a dislike was asked to abstain from the rating procedure. Each subject involved was then provided with a booklet containing 14 copies of the BMRI (Karageorghis et al., 1999). In accordance with the recommendations of Karageorghis et al. (1999), participants were informed that each musical selection should be rated with the specific task of sub-maximal cycling in mind. A brief explanation of the rating scale was provided including further instructions regarding the meaning of each of the 13 items. Participants were then asked if they had any questions regarding the procedure. During the procedure participants were asked to refrain from conferring with peers. The first musical selection was then presented, after which the tape was stopped to allow each individual to complete the rating procedure. The subsequent musical selections were rated in an identical fashion with respect to their motivational qualities.

Scoring the motivational qualities of the musical selections

Upon completion of the rating procedure the motivational quotient for each musical selection was calculated by following the procedure suggested by Karageorghis et al. (1999). Specifically, participants each obtain a raw score for how motivating they find each sub-scale (rhythmic response, musicality, cultural impact, association) for each musical selection. The raw score on each sub-scale is then multiplied by a weighting factor identified by Kareageorghis et al. (1999). This is so that the hierarchical importance of each sub-scale is reflected in the final motivational quotient. The four weighted sub-scales are then summed in order to identify a total motivational quotient for each musical selection for each participant. Mean sample motivational quotients were then calculated for each of the 14 tracks.

The median motivational quotient for the 14 musical selections in this study was 15.06 and quotients for individual tracks ranged from 7.05 (SD = 4.0) to 24.65 (SD = 4.63). The four musical selections with the highest motivational quotients were recorded in full onto an audiotape (TDK, FE ferric 90). This cassette was deemed to reflect "'motivational" music, as identified by the BMRI rating procedure. Generally, scores of the motivational music selections tended to be beyond the middle of the range for each weighted subscale score in accordance with the recommendations of Karageorghis et al. (1999). However, on the association dimension, two of the motivational tracks tended to be closer to the center of the range. Similarly, the four selections with the lowest motivational quotients were recorded onto an identical audiotape. This music was deemed to reflect "oudeterous" music. The four motivational musical selections had quotients ranging from 18.17 (SD = 6.01) to 24.65 (SD = 4.22) and the average motivational quotient for these four tracks was 20.92 (SD = 1.63). The four oudeterous musical selections had quotients ranging from 7.05 (SD = 4.0) to 10.96 (SD = 4.83) and the average motivational quotient for these four tracks was 9.12 (SD = 2.80). The average motivational quotients for motivational vs. oudeterous music were significantly different (t = 5.37, p < .01), indicating that the motivational qualities of the two musical compilations were significantly disparate.

Experimental Details

Participants

Participants in the experiment were 18 sport and exercise science undergraduates attending universities in the UK. Specifically, there were 8 males (M = 22.1 years SD = 1.4) and 10 females (M = 21.7 years, SD = 0.7). All participants were homogenous in terms of cultural background (i.e., originated in the UK and had a "liking" of mainstream dance music) and had previous experience of performing sub-maximal exercise on cycle ergometers.

Participants were required to perform in three sub-maximal exercise trials (no music--where participants were required to listen to the sound of a "blank tape", oudeterous music, and motivational music) on a "Monark 818E Ergomedic ergometer cycle," calibrated and standardized to a resistance of 10N. The study was conducted over a three-week period, with participants performing one exercise trial per week. Each experimental trial was 12 minutes in duration (excluding a three minute warm up and one minute cool down). Trial order was counterbalanced to control for order effects. Specifically, of the nine pairs of participants, the first six pairs were allocated to one of six possible counterbalancing orders. The remaining three pairs of participants were then randomly allocated to one of the six counterbalancing orders. All trials were conducted at a similar time of day and participants were asked to refrain from eating or drinking caffeine-based products one hour prior to testing.

Participants were tested in pairs, however cycle ergometers were placed so that they were unable to observe each other. Trials were conducted within a laboratory environment to eliminate external extraneous variables. During each trial, participants were required to wear headphones and music (or a blank tape in the no music condition) was played through a "Tandberg R822 Audio Tutor" cassette player. Specifically, two pairs of "HD 2020" headphones were consistently used and volume intensity was standardized to a level of 70% of maximum volume throughout the experiment. To reduce personal goal setting effects data concerning distance traveled during each trial was withheld from participants until a final debriefing session.

Borg's (1971) Rate of Perceived Exertion Scale was applied in order to ensure that the same perceived sub-maximal intensity of exercise was consistently maintained during all trials. That is, participants were specifically instructed to maintain a specified RPE throughout the duration of each trial in order to observe whether any objective increases in work output were made without being subjectively recognized by participants (due to the fact that they were exercising at a standardized RPE). Noble and Robertson (1996) have suggested that without practice, participants may have difficulty linking semantic anchors with numeric values in scales such as Borg's RPE. Hence, in this study it was ensured that all participants had prior knowledge of the Borg scale and that instructions and rating practice were provided prior to trials.

Measures

Rate of perceived exertion. As identified above, rate of perceived exertion was maintained through the application of Borg's (1971) 15-point RPE scale. Specifically, the RPE consists of perceived workloads ranging on a semantic continuum from very, very light to very, very hard. The RPE has been demonstrated as a valid and reliable measure of perceived exertion during exercise (e.g., Borg, 1971; Skinner, Hustler, Bergsteinova, & Buskirk, 1973).

Distance cycled The distance cycled by participants in each trial was also recorded on the built-in cycle computer of the Monark 818E Ergomedic Ergometer in order to register any objective increases in workload between trials. As identified above, participants were unable to view the distance traveled for each trial in order to avoid goal-setting effects.

Affect. Affect was recorded using the 11-point Feeling Scale developed by Rejeski (1985) in order to monitor any differences in affective patterns between trials. The scale ranges from -5 (feeling very good) to +5 (feeling very bad) with semantic anchors at 2-point intervals. Specifically, participants affect scores were measured at three-minute intervals (3, 6, 9, & 12 minutes) throughout the exercise trials. At the end of each trial the total affect score was obtained by simply summing the four measures of affective states for a given trial. Hence, participants affect scores could range from a low of -20 to a high of 20. The scale has been found to be a valid and reliable measure of affective states during exercise performance (Hardy & Rejeski, 1989).

Measurement procedures

An initial ten-minute introductory session introduced participants to the various rating scales involved in this study. Participants were given instructions regarding the correct use of the scales and given a brief practice regarding the use of Borg's (1971) RPE scale in order to maintain a consistent perceived intensity throughout all trials.

All exercise trials then followed an identical measurement procedure. Specifically, prior to testing participants were asked to adjust the cycle seat to a comfortable and appropriate height. They were then asked to perform a 2-minute warm-up at an RPE level of '9', after which a further 1-minute warm-up was performed at an RPE level of '11'. Following the warm-up the RPE scale was placed within participants' view and they were asked to apply the headphones.

Dependent upon the condition, the appropriate audiotape (no music/oudeterous music/ motivational music) was installed into the cassette player and participants were instructed to pedal for 12 minutes at a specific RPE of '13'. An RPE of '13' was selected because it corresponds to a heart rate indicative of sub-maximal exercise (ACSM, 1998). During each trial, measures of affective states (assessed by the Feelings Scale; Rejeski, 1985) were taken at three-minute intervals (3, 6, 9, & 12 minutes), where participants simply pointed to which number most closely reflected their current affective state. In addition, at each three-minute interval participants were required to confirm that they were still cycling at an RPE of '13.' Completion of the 12-minute trial was followed by a 1-minute cool-down at an RPE of '9.' After the final trial, participants were debriefed and their results were disclosed to them.

Results

Descriptive statistics

Descriptive statistics across the three conditions (no music, oudeterous music, and motivational music) are displayed in Table 1. These descriptive statistics show means and standard deviations for distance traveled, and affect across the three conditions.

Repeated measures ANOVAs

Firstly, total distance traveled was analyzed with conditions (no music vs. oudeterous music vs. motivational music) as a within-participants factor. The sphericity assumption was not met, so the Huynh-Feldt correction was applied. The main effect for conditions was significant (F(1.54, 23.03) = 4.22,p < .05, (d = .22). Post-hoc comparisons were conducted using the Sidak adjustment for multiple comparisons. Comparisons revealed that participants in the motivational music condition (M = 7.11 km, SD = .85), compared to the no music condition (M = 6.41 km, SD = .92), had traveled significantly further (p < .05, d = 0.74). No significant differences were identified between the motivational music and oudeterous music, and between the oudeterous music and no music conditions. This suggests that motivational music elicited significantly greater objective work output than no music even though participants were exercising at the same perceived intensity level.

Secondly, participants' sum totals of affective scores over the 12-minute conditions were analyzed in the same way with conditions (no music vs. oudeterous music vs. motivational music) as a within-participants factor. This was to identify whether the increases in objective intensity that was elicited by motivational music would have any adverse influence on affective patterns. This time the sphericity assumption was met, so the Huynh-Feldt correction was not applied. The main effect for conditions was significant (F(2, 30) = 29.72, p < .01, d = .67). Post-hoc comparisons, using the Sidak adjustment for multiple comparisons, revealed that participants in the motivational music (M = 12.19, SD = 4.84.) and oudeterous music conditions (M = 11.19, SD = 6.05), compared to the no music condition (M = 6.13, SD = 5.99), reported significantly higher levels of affect during exercise (motivational music =p < .05, d = 1.07; oudeterous music = p < .05, d = .89). However, no significant differences were identified between the motivational music and oudeterous music conditions.

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of motivational music on objective work output at a standardized perceived exertion and the subsequent effects on in-exercise affective states. The study was conducted in the context of the theoretical assumptions proposed by Karageorghis et al. (1999).

Motivational music elicited a significant increase in distance traveled when compared to the no music condition. No significant difference in distance traveled was found between oudeterous music and no music conditions. This finding provides some support for the assumptions proposed by Karageorghis et al. (1999) suggesting that where appropriate considerations are given to the motivational characteristics of musical selections, positive impacts on perceptions of exertion are stimulated. Specifically, in this study the application of motivational music (compared to no music) appeared to engender an enhanced perception of what constituted cycling at an RPE of '13' in participants.

Additionally, given that participants were more objectively productive when exposed to motivational music, we aimed to examine whether there appeared to be any subsequent negative effects on affective states that might be brought about by increased objective intensity. Specifically, results suggested that motivational music stimulated improvements in affective states during exercise trials compared to the no music condition, indicating that the increased objective output stimulated by motivational music was not accompanied by a decrease in affect. In fact, affective states appeared to be significantly elevated by the application of motivational music. Hence, overall, results of this study suggest that the application of motivational music can stimulate individuals to reach higher objective sub-maximal exercise intensities whilst registering no conscious awareness of an increase in effort and also experiencing heightened levels of positive affective states during the experience. Of course, this finding should be interpreted with caution in terms of attributing the cause of affective improvements directly to the motivational music. It may be that any affective changes brought about by motivational music are a consequence of increased objective intensity and not a direct consequence of musical application. However, the aim of this study was not to identify causal links between variables but simply to examine any alterations in affective states that occurred in conjunction with musical application.

However, although motivational music increased distance traveled and positive affect when compared to no music, comparison of motivational music to oedeterous music revealed no significant differences in terms of distance traveled and affective states. Further, both music conditions elicited a significant increase in affective states compared to no music. In terms of affect, these results suggest that when sufficient consideration is afforded to factors such as tempo, familiarity, and cultural appropriateness, music need not necessarily be "motivational" in order to bring about improvements. These findings may concur with studies suggesting that music categorized as simply being "up-beat" produced significant improvements in affective response (e.g., Lee, 1989; Wales, 1986). However, such findings are in contrast to the findings of Karageorghis and Terry (1999) who found that motivational music had the most positive effect on participants' affective states and that appropriately selected oudeterous music failed to enhance affect.

A number of possibilities exist that may account for the similarity between affective responses to both music conditions. Firstly, the motivational music in this study may not have been sufficiently motivating. The BMRI allows a highest motivational quotient of 33.33. Although oedeterous and motivational musical selections had significantly different quotients, the mean quotient for motivational music was 20.92. Perhaps the music in this study was not "motivational" enough to differentiate it from oedeterous music. Secondly, trials in this study were 12 minutes in length and it is possible that this duration may not have been long enough to elicit elevated feelings of boredom or discomfort. For example, motivational music may have proved to be more beneficial in elevating affective states in exercise trials of a longer duration.

Before conclusions can be drawn, a number of limitations require acknowledgement. The authors recognize that the twelve-minute duration of exercise trials within this study may compromise ecological validity. However, externally imposed time constraints prevented the implementation of trials of a longer duration. Despite this, recommendations presented by the ACSM (1998) have suggested that there may be significant public health benefits elicited by regular bouts of intermittent exercise of approximately 10-15 minutes duration. Hence, the results of this study may have ecological validity in the context of such guidelines. This study also neglected to determine whether gender influenced music rating procedures and subsequent responses during exercise performance. Future research might address these factors.

In conclusion, the results of this study suggest that when sufficient consideration is given to the selection of musical accompaniment to exercise, affective benefits may ensue. However, results also suggest that when compared to no music, the use of motivational music may be superior to oedeterous music in terms of eliciting increased exercise intensity. These findings may have implications within the exercise environment given the importance of affect and intensity in relation to exercise adherence.

Table 1. Means and standard deviations for distance travelled and
affective states in each experimental condition

Condition M Distance SD M Affect SD

Motivational music 7.11 km .85 12.19 4.84

Oudeterous music 6.87 km 1.05 11.19 6.05

No music 6.41 km .92 6.13 5.99

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Dave Elliott

St. Martin's College

Sam Carr

University College Northampton

Dave Savage

Chester College

Address Correspondece To: Sam Carr, Division of Human Movement and Sport Sciences, University College Northampton, Park Campus, Boughton Green Road, Northampton, UK. E-mail: sam.carr@northampton.ac.uk or samuelcarr@hotmail.com.