The influence of significant others on the goal orientations of youngsters in physical education.

Carr, Sam ; Weigand, Daniel A.

The purpose of this study was to explore whether differences in perceptions of the motivational climiate emphasized by teachers, peers and sporting heroes correspond to differences in personal goal profiles in children in PE; and to explore the relative influence that these individuals have on children 's task and ego orientation. Two-hundred and sixty-s ix secondary school PE pupils from the United Kingdom completed surveys on personal goal orientations for PE and perceptions of the motivational climate emphasized by PE teachers, peers and sporting heroes. Results indicated that children with a high task oriented goal profile componenet tended to inernalize higher perceptions of a learning climate from these individuals than children with a low task oriented profile component. Children with a high ego oriented profile component tended to internalize higher perceptions of a comparison climate from teachers, peers and heroes than those with a lower ego oriented component. Teacher promotion of a learning climat e was most strongly related to task orientation and peer promotion of a comparision climate was mot strongly related to ego orientation. Results are discussed in terms of the need to employ a goal profile approach in the examination of antecedents of goal orientations, and the influence that significant others have for enhancing the quality of youngsters' PE experiences.

It has been recognised (Duda, 1996) that the domain of school based physical education (PE) has great potential to reinforce a physically active lifestyle for children. For many children, one of the first opportunities they have to participate in organised sport is through PE. Often it is the enjoyment that children get from their PE experiences that compels them to join a local sports club and extend their sporting interests (White, Kavussanu, & Guest, 1998). Sallis et al. (1992) have additionally contended that school based PE has the most potential for impacting public health because an existing infrastructure is devoted to school based PE. However, despite this, research has demonstrated that as they mature, a large percentage of youths lose interest in PE and participation levels decrease (Van Wersch, Trew, & Turner, 1992).

Duda (1996) has contended that in order to combat such disturbing trends, and to maximise the opportunity for youngsters to engage in a physically active lifestyle, researchers must develop an insight into what is important about PE in the minds of youths. That is, an understanding of why youths engage and invest in PE is necessary. Accordingly, researchers (e.g., Ames, 1984; Duda, 1996; Nicholls, 1989) have advocated the importance of the goal orientations that youngsters hold in PE contexts. Such advances stem from an achievement goal theory approach to motivation.

Achievement Goal Theory

A viable frame of reference for studying motivation in sport and PE is achievement goal theory (Ames, 1984, 1992; Duda, 1992, 1993; Dweck, 1986; Elliot & Dweck, 1988; Maehr & Nicholls, 1980; Nicholls, 1984, 1989). Fundamentally, achievement goal theory posits that individuals engage in achievement contexts for the primary purpose of demonstrating competence. Such competence is construed, however, in different ways, in accordance with the goal involvement that individuals adopt (Nicholls, 1984, 1989) in specific situations. Specifically, in task-involved states individuals view competence as synonymous with improvement, effort, learning, and task mastery. In contrast, individuals in a state of ego-involvement equate competence with the demonstration of superior ability and outperforming others (Nicholls, 1984, 1989).

Achievement goal theorists (e.g., Duda, 1992, 1996; Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Nicholls, 1989, 1992) have contended that state goal involvement is a function of both dispositional differences and the characteristics of the situation. Dispositional differences are seen as the a priori probability of internalising a particular goal orientation and situational factors are seen as potentially altering these probabilities (Dweck & Leggett, 1988). For example, Dweck and Leggett have (1988) contended that in a situation affording a choice between predominantly task- and ego- involved goals, individuals bring with them a dispositional tendency (a goal Orientation) to favour one or the other. If the situation offers no cues or specific goal emphasis it is likely that the dispositional goal orientation will prevail and will determine the individual's current state of goal involvement.

Goal Orientations

With reference to dispositional goal orientations, task-oriented individuals have a general tendency to seek to demonstrate competence using criteria such as personal progression, task mastery, the application of effort, and the learning of skills (Nicholls, 1984, 1989). Ego-oriented individuals have a tendency to seek to demonstrate competence by proving their superior ability to others (Nicholls, 1984, 1989).

Research (see Duda, 1996 for a review) in the PE domain has indicated that individual differences in task and ego orientation have important implications for sustained motivation and the quality of experiences (e.g., Duda, 1992, 1993; Roberts, 1992). Consistent patterns of affective and cognitive concomitants have been identified for predominantly task, versus ego, oriented individuals. For example, task oriented students have been shown to believe that success in PE was due to effort, co-operation, and intrinsic interest whereas ego oriented students believed success was due to deception and superior ability (Solmon & Lee, 1996; Walling & Duda, 1995). Task oriented students have also been found to perceive increasing self-esteem, developing good citizenship, and fostering mastery as the purposes of PE. In contrast, ego oriented students have viewed enhancing self-esteem and social status as the purposes of PE (Papaioannou & McDonald, 1993; Walling & Duda, 1995). In addition, task oriented students have also been shown to exhibit higher levels of intrinsic motivation for PE than ego oriented students (Goudas & Biddle, 1994; Goudas et al., 1995).

The antecedents of dispositional goal orientations in sport and PE have received less attention than the concomitants. Achievement goal theorists (e.g., Duda, 1996; Nicholls, 1989) have contended that dispositional goal orientations stem partly from the social environment. Accordingly, Duda (1987) has outlined the need for researchers to address the impact that various significant social agents might have on youngsters' goal orientations.

The Influence of Significant Others

One factor that has begun to generate some interest from social-cognitive researchers is the structure of the motivational climate emphasised by various significant others. From this perspective, based upon the work of Ames and her colleagues (Ames, 1992; Ames & Archer, 1988), the motivational climate emphasised by a given social agent is determined by that agent's own personal goals, emphasised evaluation and reward processes, and task, authority and grouping structures of the environment. Individuals are able to detect this achievement climate from interaction with social agents in achievement contexts.

In classroom contexts (e.g., Ames, 1992) a mastery-oriented climate is hypothesised to prevail when teachers focus on self-improvement and task mastery by rewarding effort and personal progression. Such a climate induces a task focus and students typically adopt adaptive achievement strategies such as investing high amounts of effort, choosing challenging tasks, and demonstrating persistence even when facing difficulty. In contrast, if students perceive a focus on normative criteria, social comparison, and competition, a performance-oriented climate prevails. A performance-oriented climate normally occurs as a function of teachers selectively praising more able students and emphasising competition above effort and personal progression. Performance climates typically induce maladaptive achievement strategies such as low levels of effort, avoidance of challenging tasks, and an increased likelihood that children will give up in challenging situations (Ames, 1992).

Research has begun to incorporate such perspectives on the motivational climate in the context of PE. In particular, perceptions of climates consistently emphasised by teachers and peers are beginning to be regarded as a salient influence on the development of youngsters' personal goal orientations.

For example, the influence of the motivational climate emphasised by PE teachers has been examined (Goudas & Biddle, 1994; Papaiouannou, 1994, 1995). Borrowing from the work of Ames (e.g., Ames & Archer, 1988) in an academic classroom context, such research has indicated that perceptions of a performance-oriented PE class climate is associated with higher ego orientation in youngsters. On the other hand, perceptions of a class climate that is predominantly mastery-oriented are associated with higher task orientation in youngsters. For example, Goudas et al. (1995) manipulated the climate in a PE athletics class. As hypothesised, students exposed to the mastery-oriented climate developed a higher task orientation and levels of intrinsic motivation than students exposed to the performance-oriented climate.

The influence of the motivational climate created by peers in PE has been allotted less attention. However, research (e.g., Carr, Weigand, & Hussey, 1999) is beginning to suggest that peers are influential in the development of dispositional goal orientations. For example, Carr et al. (1999) examined parental, peer, and teacher influence on various cognitive and affective correlates of children and adolescents' PE experiences. Results indicated that adolescents' task orientation for PE was predicted by perceptions of a lower worry-conducive climate from peers. In addition, perceptions of a higher pursuit of comparison and lower promotion of learning emphasised by peers predicted adolescents' ego orientation.

Despite the increasing indication that the social environment plays an important role in the development of goal orientations, researchers have, to date, neglected to look beyond those social agents with whom children experience direct personal interaction. One such socio-cultural agent, whom researchers (e.g., Russell, 1979; Smith, 1974) have advocated has vast potential to impact upon children's intellectual, moral, emotional, and psychosocial development, are sporting heroes. Such heroes constantly perform in a domain highly valued by the majority of children and are viewed by many as representing a frame of reference for sporting reality.

Sport Heroes Influence

Smith (1974) has defined sport heroes as individuals (and possibly groups of individuals) who provide actors with a frame of reference that serves to facilitate judgements about various issues. Role modelling has been shown to be a major influence upon aggression and attitudinal outcome variables (e.g., Bandura, 1973; Russell, 1979; Smith, 1974) and has also been theorised (Russell, 1979) to have potential for value and belief mediation. Indeed, the importance of observational learning via socialisation processes has long been recognised (e.g., Bandura, 1969).

In accordance with a central tenet of Bandura's (1973) role modelling hypothesis, role models most highly attended to, and therefore most likely to influence behaviour, are those in possession of high status in prestige, power, and competence hierarchies. Smith (1974) has additionally contended that even when observers dislike the attributes of role models, providing the model appears highly successful in obtaining social and material rewards, imitation and influence are probable.

One area of competence that is particularly highly valued by the majority of children is athletic ability (Coie, Dodge, & Kupersmidt, 1991; Evans & Roberts, 1987). Hence, in accordance with Bandura's assumptions, the elite and professional athletes of contemporary society are likely to be highly attended to, and well regarded by children. Youngsters especially are therefore likely to be impressionable and open to influence by society's sporting role models, that influence possibly extending to affect the quality of their intellectual, moral, emotional, and psychosocial development (Russell, 1979).

One recent perspective (i.e., Carr, Weigand, & Jones, 2000), has applied research (e.g., Perse, 1990; Perse & Rubin, 1989; Rubin & McHugh, 1987; Rubin, Perse, & Powell, 1985) examining children's interaction with media heroes to a sporting context. From this perspective it is suggested, that through processes of parasocial interaction and wishful identification (Perse & Rubin, 1989; Rubin & McHugh, 1987), youngsters might be able to deduce an opinion of the achievement orientations that their sport heroes hold. In contexts outside of sport, media heroes have certainly been demonstrated to influence the values and beliefs adopted by youngsters (e.g., Perse, 1990; Rubin & Perse, 1987; Rubin et al., 1985).

Carr et al. (2000) extended research on the motivational climate and suggested that goal orientations might also extend from sporting heroes to young admirers. These researchers assessed 150 children and adolescents' perceptions of their sporting heroes' achievement orientations, along with their personal goal orientations for sport (i.e., soccer/netball). Results indicated that youngsters' perceptions of a higher mastery-orientation emphasised by heroes predicted higher personal task orientation for sport. In addition, perceptions of higher ego orientation and lower mastery-orientation emphasised by heroes predicted higher personal ego orientation for sport. However, a link between youngsters' goal orientations for PE and their perceptions of their heroes' goal orientations has yet to be examined.

Teachers, Peers, and Sport Heroes' Influence on PE Goal Orientations

White, Kavussanu, and Guest (1998) have stressed the need for researchers to begin to examine how a combination of significant others might relate to youngsters' personal goal orientations for PE. From this viewpoint it is contended that existing research has centered on singularly addressing the influence of various social agents without examining some of the possible combinations of significant others. The purpose of this study was threefold. Firstly, this study attempted to broaden existing research on PE goal orientations and the influence of significant others by exploring individual differences in children's PE goal orientations and perceptions of the motivational climate emphasised by PE teachers, peers, and sport heroes. Secondly, this study explored the relative influence of the teacher, peer, and sport hero motivational climate on youngsters' PE goal orientations. Thirdly, this study evaluated a context (PE) which has undergone major changes since the implementation of the National Curriculum, but h as received little research attention with regards to goal orientations and motivational climate.

Drawing upon previous contentions (e.g., Ames, 1984; Fox et al., 1994; Harwood, 2000; White, 1998) goal orientations were examined using a goal profile approach. From this perspective it is suggested that goal orientations are independent constructs (Harwood, 2000) and hence the effect of one goal orientation cannot be predicted without consideration of the other. It was hypothesised that children with a high task/low ego goal profile for PE would perceive the climate emphasised by significant others to be more task involving. In contrast, children with a high ego/low task profile were hypothesised to internalise perceptions of a more ego involving climate from significant others. No predictions were made concerning high task/high ego and low task/low ego profile groups due to the exploratory nature of this study and to the fact that the literature has rarely considered these groups. In addition, no hypotheses were made regarding the relative influence of the socialisers as the literature has not sufficiently addressed this area of research.

Method

Participants

Participants were 266 pupils attending schools in the east of England. Participants had an age range of 11-15 years. There were 145 males (M = 12.4, SD = .05) and 121 females (M = 13.0, SD = .89). A breakdown of the sample revealed an almost exclusively Caucasian group (97%).

Measures

Peer and Teacher Influence. In order to assess the influence of peers and teachers, the PE Class Climate Scale (PECCS; Biddle, Cury, Goudas, Sarazin, Famose, & Durand, 1995) was employed in its original format. The PECCS is designed to assess the perception children have of the motivational climate in PE classes and consists of subscales designed to measure children's perceptions of the climate initiated by the teacher and pupils.

To measure teacher influence, the two subscales (7 items) assessing children's perceptions of the teacher initiated motivational climate were employed. The first subscale measured teacher promotion of a learning oriented climate and consisted of four items. The second subscale measured teacher promotion of a comparison oriented climate and consisted of three items. Children responded to the stem "In my PE lessons..." and answered each item of the learning oriented (e.g., "The PE teacher is pleased when each pupil learns something new") and comparison oriented (e.g., "The PE teacher only bothers with those who are good at sport") subscales on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from I (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree).

To assess peer influence, the subscales (8 items) of the PECCS assessing children's perceptions of the pupil initiated motivational climate were employed. The first subscale measured peer promotion of a learning oriented climate and consisted of five items (e.g., "My friends learn new things and they feel pleased"). The second subscale measured peer promotion of a comparison oriented climate and consisted of three items (e.g., "My friends try to do better than each other"). The terminology within items was adapted to reflect measurement of peer influence (my friends), as opposed to pupil influence (the pupils). Items were answered in the above described format (e.g., children responded to the stem "In my PE lessons..." and answered each item on a similar 5-point Likert-type scale) and a mean score was calculated for each subscale. Biddle et al. (1995) have demonstrated the PECCS to display adequate factorial structure, good internal consistency, and acceptable test-retest reliability.

Sport Heroes Influence. In order to assess this construct, a measure constructed by Carr et at. (2000) to assess youngsters' perceptions of the achievement orientation that their sporting heroes aspire to was adapted. This measure was based on the assumption that children and adolescents can deduce the achievement orientation that their heroes aspire to based on the kind of indirect, parasocial interaction that children have been shown to engage in with their sporting heroes (see Carr et al., 2000). Therefore, items reflect perceptions of a specific achievement orientation aspired to by the hero that could be deducted by children from the kind of interaction that children have with their sporting heroes (i.e., watching them play on TV, seeing interviews, hearing commentary, reading newspapers and magazines, etc.). An example of such an item is "My sporting hero seems to be most pleased when he/she beats everyone else."

The initial measure (see Carr et al., 2000) consisted of three subscales reflecting children's perceptions of: (a) mastery orientation in their heroes (12 items), (b) ego orientation in their heroes (7 items), and (c) heroes being primarily concerned with winning (5 items). However, for the purpose of this study one major change was made to this measure.

It was considered that the subscale assessing heroes' concern with winning was too synonymous with the subscale assessing heroes' ego orientation. Additionally the face validity of the items in this subscale was deemed questionable. Hence, this subscale was omitted from this study. The two subscales assessing heroes' mastery and ego orientation (i.e., 19 items) were retained in their original format.

Youngsters therefore responded to 19 items for this measure. Twelve items assessed perceptions of a mastery orientation in heroes (e.g., "It seems like his/her ultimate goal is to do his/her best") and 7 items assessed perceptions of an ego orientation in heroes (e.g., "It seems like he/she would feel bad if he/she doesn't do as well as others"). All items were assessed on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree).

Personal Goal Orientations. Personal goal orientations were assessed using the 13-item Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnnaire (TEOSQ; Duda, 1993). Specifically, the TEOSQ requires participants to think of when they felt most successful in "sport" (for the current study, this was changed to "PE") and then respond to seven items reflecting task involvement (e.g., "I feel most successful in PE when I learn something new") and six items reflecting ego involvement (e.g., "I feel most successful in PE when I can do better than my friends"). Participants responded on a S-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree). The TEOSQ is scored by calculating a mean score for each of the two subscales. Higher scores on each subscale represent a greater internalization of that goal orientation. Additionally, Boyd and Callaghan (1994) have found the TEOSQ to demonstrate adequate psychometric properties in studies of children and much evidence exists to demonstrate favourable reliab ility and validity (Duda & Whitehead, 1998).

Procedures

After obtaining informed consent and written permission from schools and teachers, questionnaires were administered to participants. Administration was completed in small groups following regular PE lessons and without the presence of the PE teacher. Respondents typically took between 15-20 minutes to complete the measures. Additionally, participants were reminded that their participation was voluntary and that all responses would remain anonymous.

Results

Statistical Analyses

An exploratory factor analysis was conducted on the items designed to measure youngsters' perceptions of their sport heroes' achievement orientation. In order to determine whether children with different goal profiles for PE internalised different perceptions of teacher and peer motivational climates and different perceptions of their sport hero's achievement orientations a one-way MANOVA was conducted. The teacher, peer, and hero variables served as the dependent variables and goal profiles served as the independent variable. Multiple regression analyses were conducted to determine whether task and ego-orientation are better predicted by teacher, peer, or sport hero variables.

Exploratory Factor Analysis

An Exploratory Factor Analysis (with Quartimax rotation) examined the structure of the 19 items designed to measure youngsters' perceptions of their sporting hero's achievement orientation. A factor weight of 0.40 was required for an item to be considered to have loaded on a particular factor. Two factors with eigenvalues greater than one emerged, accounting for 40% of the total variance (see Table 1). Twelve items, that appeared to reflect children's perceptions of a mastery orientation in their hero, loaded on Factor I (Mastery Orientation). Factor 2 (Ego Orientation) comprised seven items capturing a perception of the hero being primarily ego orientated (i.e., concerned with winning and the demonstration of ability).

Table 1

Factor Analysis of the Items to Measure Children's Perceptions of
Achievement Orientation in Sporting Heroes (N = 266)

Items Mastery Orientation


It seems like improving after .52
trying hard is very important to
him/her.

I think he/she seems to always try .49
to improve his/her skills.

I think that he/she seems to think .43
that mistakes are just part of
learning.

It seems like his/her ultimate .59
goal is to do his/her best.

It seems like trying his/her best .57
would be more important than
winning or losing.

It seems like learning new things .61
would be most important to
him/her.

It seems like progressing his/her .64
skills after trying hard would be
most important to him/her.

It seems like improving his/her .56
skills would be most important
to him/her.

It seems like doing his/her best .56
is most important to him/her.

It seems like trying hard is most .67
important to him/her.

It seems like trying to achieve .51
his/her personal goals would be
most important to him/her.

It seems like performing to the best of his/her .47
ability would be most important to him/her.

It seems like he/she dislikes losing because

It seems like he/she would feel bad if he/she
doesn't do as well as others.

I think that he/she seems to dislike doing
things he/she is not good at in front of others.

It seems like doing well without trying
is most important to him/her.

It seems like winning without trying hard
is most important to him/her.

It seems like scoring more points/goals than
others is most important to him/her.

It seems like beating opponents is very
important to him/her.

Items Ego Orientation

It seems like improving after
trying hard is very important to
him/her.

I think he/she seems to always try
to improve his/her skills.

I think that he/she seems to think
that mistakes are just part of
learning.

It seems like his/her ultimate
goal is to do his/her best.

It seems like trying his/her best
would be more important than
winning or losing.

It seems like learning new things
would be most important to
him/her.

It seems like progressing his/her
skills after trying hard would be
most important to him/her.

It seems like improving his/her
skills would be most important
to him/her.

It seems like doing his/her best
is most important to him/her.

It seems like trying hard is most
important to him/her.

It seems like trying to achieve
his/her personal goals would be
most important to him/her.

It seems like performing to the best of his/her
ability would be most important to him/her.

It seems like he/she dislikes losing because .56

It seems like he/she would feel bad if he/she .45
doesn't do as well as others.

I think that he/she seems to dislike doing .58
things he/she is not good at in front of others.

It seems like doing well without trying .61
is most important to him/her.

It seems like winning without trying hard .66
is most important to him/her.

It seems like scoring more points/goals than .63
others is most important to him/her.

It seems like beating opponents is very .56
important to him/her.

Note: Only loadings > .40 are included.

Internal Consistency

The internal consistency of all subscales implemented within this study was examined using Cronbach's (1951) alpha coefficient. Table 2 displays the alpha coefficients for all variables. The subscale assessing perceptions of teacher promotion of a comparison oriented climate attained satisfactory internal consistency (i.e.,> 0.7, Nunnally, 1978) with the deletion of one item ("In my PE lessons the PE teacher is particularly pleased with those who win"). All other subscales demonstrated adequate internally consistency.

Table 2

Internal Consistency of Subscales

Variable Alpha Coefficient

Task orientation .83
Ego orientation .85
Peer promotion of learning .72
Peer promotion of comparison .74
Teacher promotion of learning .80
Teacher promotion of comparison .73
Sporting hero mastery orientation .80
Sporting hero ego orientation .73

Goal Profile Groups

Previous research (e.g., Fox et al., 1994; White, 1998) has advocated a goal profile approach to the examination of goal orientations. From this perspective it is suggested that to separately examine the effects of task and ego orientation is illogical since both goal orientations must be taken into account to adequately address their consequences. A goal profile approach was therefore adopted in this study. Researchers (e.g., Fox et al., 1994; White, 1998) have previously incorporated mean splits of task and ego orientation scores to divide samples into four goal profile groups because there are no published, population-specific norms for the TEOSQ. However, Treasure (2000) has advocated checking mean and median similarity before resorting to mean splits. Mean and median values for task and ego orientation did not appear to differ substantially (M task orientation = 3.95, median = 4.00; M ego orientation = 3.34, median = 3.50). Mean splits of task and ego orientation scores were therefore conducted to divid e the sample into four goal profile groups of high task/low ego, high task/high ego, low task/high ego, and low task/low ago.

Orthogonality of the TEOSQ

A simple bivariate correlation analysis was conducted to determine the orthogonality of the TEOSQ. Results indicated a weak, non-significant correlation between task and ego orientation (r = .19). This confirmed the contention that the two goal orientations are independent constructs. Hence, one may have a dominant goal orientation or be high, or low, in both orientations.

Goal Profile Differences in Perceptions of Motivational Climate from Significant Others

A one-way MANOVA was conducted to test for goal profile differences in perceptions of the motivational climate emphasised by teachers and peers, and perceptions of the achievement orientations emphasised by sports heroes. Keppel (1991) has suggested that for MANOVA to hold true (i.e., minimise risk of Type I error) then multivariate normality and homogeneity of variance-covariance matrices should be evident. An examination of the Fmax (see Keppel, 1991) ratios for within-group variances in this study revealed that there was no problem with heterogeneity within the data set. However, the data did display a certain degree of skewness. In this situation, to reduce the risk of committing a Type I error, Keppel (1991) suggests reducing the significance level. Hence, the significance level for this analysis was reduced from .05 to .025. The MANOVA revealed a significant main effect for goal profiles (Wilks's lambda = .53, F( 18, 724) = 7.26,p .000).

A Bonferroni-type correction was required when examining the univariate F values, in accordance with the number of dependent variables. The new significance level was therefore set at .006 (.025/6). Univariate analyses revealed significant differences among profile groups. The means across all dependent variables for the four profile groups, together with F values and significance of F are displayed in Table 3. Specifically, ANOVA and Scheffe post hoc tests indicated the following:

For teachers: (a) youngsters with a low task/low ego orientation had lower perceptions of teacher promotion of a learning climate than high task/high ego, high task/low ego, and low task/high ego oriented youngsters, and (b) youngsters with a high task/low ego orientation had lower perceptions of teacher promotion of a comparison climate than low task/high ego oriented youngsters.

For peers: (a) youngsters with either high task/high ego or high task/low ego goal orientations had higher perceptions of peer promotion of learning climates than youngsters with low task/high ego and low task/low ego goal orientations, and (b) youngsters with high task/high ego orientation and low task/high ego orientation had higher perceptions of promotion of comparison in peers than youngsters with high task/low ego orientation and low task/low ego orientation.

For sporting heroes: (a) youngsters with high task/high ego and high task/low ego goal orientations had higher perceptions of mastery orientation in their heroes than youngsters with low task/low ego goal orientations, and (b) youngsters with high task/low ego orientation had lower perceptions of an ego orientation in heroes than youngsters with high task/high ego orientation and low task/high ego orientation.

Table 3

Mean Differences Between Coal Profiles on Perceptions of Teacher, Peer,
and Hero Climate

 High task/ High task/ Low task/
 high ego (1) low ego (2) high ego (3)

Variable M SD M SD M

Peer learning 4.15 .55 4.06 .69 3.64
Peer 3.93 .78 2.97 1.22 3.67
Comparison
Teacher 4.34 .64 4.35 .60 3.97
learning
Teacher 3.02 1.27 2.47 1.28 3.29
Comparison
Hero mastery 4.04 .51 4.13 .40 3.85
Hero ego 3.31 .75 2.73 .64 3.28

 Low task/ Low task/
 high ego (3) low ego (4)

Variable SD M SD F value (5) eff size

Peer learning .67 3.38 .66 23.27 (*) .21
Peer .74 3.07 .92 18.20 (*) .18
Comparison
Teacher .68 3.47 .99 21.68 (*) .20
learning
Teacher .87 2.93 1.20 4.63 .05
Comparison
Hero mastery .57 3.53 .60 17.23 (*) .18
Hero ego .71 2.98 .63 10.25 (*) .11

Note: Means represent subject's scores on a 5-point Likert-type scale
for each variable, ranging from 1 (low) through 5 (high).

(1)n = 94

(2)n = 6

(3)n = 43

(4)n = 68

(5)(*)p < .004

Multiple Regression Analyses

In order to determine which of the social variables (i.e., teacher, peer, and hero variables) best predicted youngsters' task and ego orientation for PE regression analyses were conducted. We used the test method of SPSS statistical program which calculates the amount of unique variance in criterion variables accounted for by the predictor variables regardless of their order of entry into the equation.

Table 4 displays the regression results for task orientation. Perceptions of a learning climate emphasised by teachers emerged as the most important predictor of task orientation accounting for 32% of the variance. In addition, perceptions of a learning climate from peers accounted for 8% of the variance in task orientation and perceptions of a mastery orientation in heroes accounted for a further 3%.

Table 5 displays the regression results for ego orientation. Perceptions of a comparison climate from peers emerged as the most important predictors of ego orientation accounting for 30% of the variance. In addition, perceptions of an ego orientation in heroes accounted for 7% of the variance in ego orientation and perceptions of a mastery orientation in heroes accounted for a further 2%.

Table 4

Stepwise Regression Analyses for Task Orientation

Variable Beta R-Square Change p

1 Teacher Comparison .57 .32 .000
2 Peer Learning .35 .09 .000
3 Hero Mastery .18 .02 .000
4 Hero Ego .07 .00 ns
5 Peer Comparison -.02 .00 ns
6 Teacher Comparison -.02 .00 ns

Note: Total R-Square = 0.44,F (6,258) = 33.67, p<0.001
Table 5

Stepwise Regression Analyses for Ego Orientation

Variable Beta R-Square Change P

1 Peer Comparison .54 .30 .000
2 Hero Ego .29 .07 .000
3 Hero Mastery .09 .01 ns
4 Teacher Learning .06 .00 ns
5 Peer Learning .04 .00 ns
6 Teacher Comparison .03 .00 ns

Note: Total R-Square = 0.38, F(6,258) 26.73, p<0.001

Discussion

In the context of achievement goal theory (Nicholls, 1989) the first purpose of this study was to explore how differences in youngsters' goal profiles for PE corresponded to differences in perceptions of the motivational climate emphasised by teachers, peers, and sporting heroes. It was hypothesised that children with a high task/low ego profile for PE would perceive the climate emphasised by significant others to be more task involving. In contrast, children with a high ego/low task profile were hypothesised to internalise perceptions of a more ego involving climate from significant others.

Results supported these hypotheses. Specifically, children with high task/low ego and high task/high ego profiles had higher perceptions of task involving climates emphasised by their teachers and peers than the other two profile groups. Additionally, high task/low ego and high task/high ego children also had higher perceptions of a task involved climate created by teachers, and higher perceptions of an ego orientation in sporting heroes than the low task/ low ego profile group.

Also in support of hypotheses, results indicated children with low task/high ego and high task/high ego profiles had higher perceptions of ego involving climates in teachers and peers than children with high task/low ego and low task/low ego profiles. Additionally, low task/high ego and high task/high ego children had higher perceptions of an ego orientation in sporting heroes than children with a high task/low ego profile.

Previous researchers (e.g., Duda, 1997; Fox et al., 1994; Harwood, 2000; White, 1998) have supported the use of a goal profile approach to research grounded in an achievement goal theory framework. From this perspective, for example, Harwood (2000) has contended that to separately predict the psychological effects of task and ego orientation alone tells one little about practical reality. Harwood (2000) likens this process to predicting the results of a doubles match by looking at only one of the pairing. Hence, it is argued that to separately analyse the cognitive-behavioural connotations of either task or ego orientations as a single construct might be misleading as one does not take into consideration the other half of an orthogonal unit.

However, results of this study do not provide strong support advocating the use of a goal profile approach to the investigation of links between motivational climates emphasised by significant others and personal goal orientations. For example, these results invariably demonstrated that a high task orientation, regardless of whether accompanied by a high, or low, ego orientation, related to higher perceptions of task involving climates emphasised by significant others. That is, levels of ego orientation appeared to have no moderating effect on the relationship between task orientation and perceptions of the motivational climate from significant others. Similarly, a high ego orientation, whether accompanied by a high, or low, task orientation, related to higher perceptions of an ego involving climate emphasised by significant others (with the exception of teachers). Hence, levels of task orientation appeared to have no moderating effect on the relationship between ego orientation and motivational climates.

It is therefore contended that when considering the connotations of goal orientations a goal profile approach is certainly merited (see Duda, 1997; Fox et al., 1994; Harwood, 2000; White, 1998). However, when investigating conceptual antecedents of goal orientations, such as the motivational climate, it would appear less essential to incorporate goal profiles. For example, to manipulate Harwood's (2000) above analogy, when predicting the result of a doubles match it is inappropriate to examine only one of the pairing. Yet when exploring the abilities of the two players in a doubles team, one might equally expect the antecedents of each player's ability to originate from different sources. Hence, in examining the specific origins of goal orientation components, it would appear feasible to separately examine the predictors of task and ego orientation. Despite this, the results of this study provided a strong indication of the important role that a variety of significant others play in the development of youngst ers' goal orientations.

On this note, it was the second purpose of this study to explore the relative influence that teachers, peers, and sport heroes have on youngsters' task and ego orientation for PE. No hypotheses were made for this aspect of the study as there is scarce literature available in this area of research.

Firstly, results indicated that the peer group made the strongest contribution to the prediction of youngsters' ego orientation. Specifically, youngsters were more likely to develop a higher ego orientation if they perceived that peers' emphasised a higher comparison oriented climate in PE. The peer groups' promotion of a learning climate also made a strong positive contribution to the prediction of task orientation. However, teacher promotion of a learning climate in PE lessons made the strongest contribution to predicting youngsters' task orientation.

The potentially maladaptive motivational consequences that a high level of ego orientation can have for youngsters (see Duda, 1996 for a review) when unaccompanied by a high level of task orientation has been outlined (Duda, 1997). Duda (1997) has suggested that development of a high task orientation is an essential accompaniment to youngsters' levels of ego orientation. She contends that a task orientation is beneficial as individuals may be motivated "over the long haul" as "they have a strong task orientation to fall back on when their sense of normative ability is in jeopardy" (p.309).

Consequently, results of this study would perhaps suggest that teachers, as the strongest predictor of youngsters' task orientation for PE, are an important social agent on which to target interventions designed to induce a higher dispositional level of task orientation in youngsters. Interventions aimed at youngsters might therefore be most effective if transmitted via PE teachers.

On this note, Epstein (1989) has coined the TARGET acronym which, she contends, can be sufficiently manipulated to influence children's perceptions of the motivational climate within classrooms. The TARGET acronym represents the six structural features of task, authority, reward, grouping, evaluation, and timing structures of the achievement context. Epstein (1989) has suggested that each of the TARGET constructs can be effectively manipulated by teachers to convey to children a strong mastery oriented (task oriented) class climate (readers are referred to Treasure & Roberts, 1995, for a thorough review of this process). Treasure (1993) has provided support for the successful manipulation of the PE motivational climate using the constructs of the TARGET acronym. Specifically, if children perceived the constructs of the TARGET acronym to be mastery oriented, they internalised higher task orientation for PE. Hence, it is possible to disseminate to PE teachers information on how to structure pedagogical pattern s so as to maximise the quality of youngsters' PE motivation. This study suggests that such interventions aimed at PE teachers have the greatest potential to influence the development of youngsters' PE task orientation.

Additionally, results suggested that youngsters' sport heroes emerged as predictors of both their task and ego orientation for PE. Specifically, if youngsters' perceived a higher mastery orientation in their hero they internalised a higher task orientation and if they perceived a higher ego orientation in their hero they internalised a higher ego orientation. Intervention efforts might therefore also be directed at youngsters' sport heroes Carr et al. (2000) have suggested that attempting to effect an alteration in general media portrayal of sport heroes would seem to provide a headache to even the keenest of researchers. These researchers have suggested that it may be more beneficial to remove the media transmission of heroes to youths by enabling children to come into direct contact with sporting heroes in physical activity contexts. This way, heroes can be directly responsible for transmitting a motivational climate to youths that is unaffected by media portrayal and bias.

Accordingly, the English Sports Council has recently launched the "Sporting Ambassadors" initiative (English Sports Council, 1998). This initiative is aimed at youngsters aged 4-18 years and provides opportunities for successful sportsmen and women to visit schools and youth sport organisations in order to interact with children in physical activity contexts. Among the objectives of this initiative is for sporting heroes to help to develop young peoples' physical activity motivation, to serve as role models, and to help youngsters maintain a keen interest and enthusiasm in physical activity and other school studies. Such objectives will likely be achieved by sporting heroes working alongside physical educators and practitioners, interacting with children in physical activity contexts, coaching youngsters, lecturing youngsters, and a variety of other methods (English Sports Council, 1998).

In the context of this investigation, such an initiative would appear to have great potential for sporting heroes to positively influence the achievement motivation of youngsters in sport and physical activity. Through careful structuring of the climate that they convey to youngsters, sporting heroes involved in the "Sporting Ambassadors" initiative have the potential to emphasise a higher task involved climate and to positively influence the quality of youngsters' achievement motivation on a direct level.

To conclude, we found that significant others played a substantial role in mediating children's goal orientations for PE. However, results did not appear to advocate the implementation of a goal profile approach to examining the antecedents of goal orientations. In addition, results indicated that certain social agents have a larger relative influence than others in explaining children's goal orientations and this may have important implications for structuring intervention efforts.

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