Perceptions of momentum in college and high school basketball: an exploratory, case study investigation.
Burke, Kevin L. ; Burke, Michelle M. ; Joyner, A. Barry 等
Despite the popularity and frequency of use of the term
"momentum" in sport, it has been described by researchers as
an elusive (Burke & Houseworth, 1995) or subjective (Cornelius,
Silva, Conroy, & Peterson, 1997) phenomenon. One of the earlier
cited definitions of momentum was provided by Iso-Ahola and Mobily
(1980) who stated that momentum is a gained psychological power which
may change interpersonal perceptions and influence physical and mental
performance. Taylor and Demick (1994) defined momentum as a
multidimensional construct in which a negative or positive change in
cognition, physiology, affect, and behavior is caused by one or more
events which results in a change in performance and competitive outcome.
Recently (Burke, Edwards, Weigand, & Weinberg, 1997) momentum has
been described in two ways. Positive momentum was defined as a
psychological state of mind affecting performance in a positive
direction where most everything seems to "go right" for the
performer(s). Negative momentum was defined as a psychological state of
mind affecting performance in a negative direction where most everything
seems to "go wrong" for the performer(s) (Burke et al., 1997).
Researchers began to study momentum less than 20 years ago. Some of
the sports that have been investigated are football, racquetball,
tennis, volleyball, and even laboratory studies have been conducted.
{For an exhaustive review of the literature on momentum, please see
Burke et al., 1997} In the sport of basketball, one study by Gillovich,
Vallone and Tversky (1985) investigated the "hot hand"
phenomenon. This study analyzed past shooting records of the
Philadelphia 76ers, free throw shooting records of the Boston Celtics
professional basketball teams, and conducted a controlled investigation
of the women's and men's Cornell University basketball teams.
Although the Cornell athletes' predictions of making future shots
were influenced, their performance was not. However, no support was
found for the commonly accepted notion that a basketball player who has
hit several shots in a row is more likely to continue making subsequent
shots. based upon one aspect of a momentum model (Vallerand,
Colavecchio, & Pelletier, 1992), recently, one goal of a momentum
study (Burke, et al., 1997) was to investigate spectators' views of
momentum who watched a video tape of one quarter portion of a
professional basketball play off game. The study asked spectators to
identify the beginning and ending game events (i.e., steal, blocked
shot, dunk, 3-point shot) in momentum periods. Results indicated a lack
of agreement of events that began or ended momentum.
The Burke et al. (1997) study utilized many (N = 78)
basketball-experienced observers who watched a video tape of the same
quarter of a professional game and failed to show agreement of momentum
perceptions. The purpose of the present exploratory investigation was to
discover if momentum may be perceived consistently by one
basketball-experienced, momentum-trained observer across several entire
high school and college basketball games.
Method
Participant
Data were collected by one trained observer (TO). The TO was a
28-year-old female who had a significant amount of basketball playing
and coaching experience. The TO had played high school basketball and
left the high school ranks as one of the top thirty scorers in her
state. She then played two years of college basketball. She has also
served as head and assistant coach to high school varsity, junior
varsity, and junior high teams. She was provided the Burke et al. (1997)
definitions of momentum and was briefed on other definitions of momentum
and the history of momentum research. The TO observed men's and
women's junior college and N.C.A.A. Division III level contests (N
= 11). The high school games observed (N = 3) were all boys'
contests. The games chosen for observation were dependent upon the
TO's ability to attend certain athletic events.
Procedure
The TO attended each contest in person. She had a momentum chart
(see Appendix) which asked the following question: "Was momentum
begun by a good performance by one team, poor performance by one team,
or a combination of both?" The TO was then to indicate a) the game
event(s) that began the momentum period; b) the game event(s) that
occurred during the momentum period; c) and the game event(s) that led
to the end of the momentum period. Items listed on the chart were game
events that basketball-experienced individuals agreed were most likely
to be involved in a momentum period. However, the TO was informed that
any game event (whether or not appearing on the chart) that she
perceived as part of a momentum period should be indicated. The TO was
instructed that there were no correct or incorrect perceptions. Also,
she was informed to record all acts of momentum that she perceived.
Results
A total of 50 momentum acts were observed in 11 college and 3 high
school basketball games. The TO recorded actions that accompanied the
beginning of momentum, occurred during momentum, and were present at the
end of momentum. Although given both definitions for positive and
negative momentum, the TO only recorded what she perceived to be
positive momentum periods. The beginning of momentum was most often
characterized (84.0%) as a combination of good performance by one team
and poor performance by the other team. Good performance by one team was
perceived as beginning momentum 13.7% of the time and poor performance
by one team 2.3%. The five most frequently occurring actions at the
beginning of perceived momentum were: 3-point shot (26%), defensive stop
(24%), steal (20%), fastbreak (14%), and turnover (10%). During
momentum, the five most frequently occurring actions were: turnover
(72%), crowd noise (66%), defensive stop (60%), steal (58%), and string
of unanswered points (24%). The five actions most frequently present at
the end of momentum were: turnover by momentum team (36%), missed shots
by momentum team (30%), time out (18%), fouls (10%), and end of the half
or game (10%).
The number of points scored by each team during a time of perceived
momentum was analyzed to determine if there was a significant difference
in the number of points scored by the momentum team and the other team.
The score was recorded at the beginning of perceived momentum and at the
end. An independent t-test revealed the momentum team (7.58 [+ or -]
3.66 points) scored significantly more points (p [less than] .0001) than
the other team (2.62 [+ or -] 2.32 points).
Discussion
The purpose of this exploratory study was to discover if momentum
may be perceived consistently by a basketball-experienced,
momentum-trained observer across several entire high school and college
basketball games. Unlike some previous studies (see Burke, et al., 1997)
in which little agreement on when momentum occurs has been reported,
this investigation found that momentum conditions could be distinguished
from other occurrences in basketball games. Because of the previous
consistent lack of defining periods of momentum in actual game contests,
the use of one trained observer attending and recording game events over
several contests seemed to be a logical initial step in trying to define
momentum periods more objectively. At least in high school and college
basketball games, this study reported that a TO could identify specific
game events, or a combination thereof, that led to the occurrence of
momentum.
Two conclusions may possibly be drawn from the findings in this
study concerning the beginning of momentum. First, three of the five
most often recorded basketball events that seem to begin and continue a
momentum period were related directly to defensive movements (defensive
stop, steal, and a turnover). Although, a turnover can occur without
defensive "pressure," the defense usually benefits from the
offense's unforced error (at the very least) by gaining possession
of the ball. The other two events (3-point shot &, especially a
fastbreak) often may come immediately after these defensive moments in
beginning a momentum period. Crowd behavior and a string of
"unanswered" points were usually involved in continuing
momentum periods. Although it is too early in this type of research to
draw a well-connected inference, it could be stated that momentum in
basketball occurs usually because of good game events by one team and
poor game events by the opposing team. This is in agreement with Burke
et al. who found momentum in basketball usually began in this manner 27%
of the time. However, this is also somewhat contradictory to the Burke
et al. basketball investigation where momentum was reported to begin 70%
of the time by good play of the momentum team only. In the current study
good performance by one team only began momentum 13.7% of the time. It
should be stated again that in the Burke et al. investigation there were
numerous spectators watching the same portion (one quarter) of one game
(professional) via a video tape recording. In the present study the TO
actually attended entire games (college & high school). The types of
games observed and methods of observation may account for the
differences between the results of the two studies.
Secondly, it may be concluded that 60-80% of momentum events
(starting and continuing) were specific plays mostly related to defense!
Often, these types of plays may have led to "unanswered"
points that excited the crowd. This study indicated that the momentum
team scored only five more points than the opposing team. Although this
may not seem like much of an objective advantage, this investigation did
not consider the length of time the momentum period lasted (i.e., 3
minutes, 20 seconds) or at the time during the game that the momentum
period occurred. Gaining momentum during the closing minutes of a game
may be more advantageous than having momentum early in the contest.
Again, further research in this area is needed before these types of
definite conclusions may be confidently stated. However, the results of
this investigation do provide an impetus for additional research into
specific game events that may assist in defining momentum. At the very
least this type of information should interest basketball coaches.
Momentum seemed to end in most situations when the momentum team
committed a turnover or missed a shot, or, otherwise a stop in play
(i.e., time out, end of playing period, or a foul called) occurred.
The next step in future studies should attempt to replicate these
findings by having several trained observers, seated in different
locations at the same basketball contests charting potential momentum
occurrences. If the TOs show consistent agreement in measuring momentum
periods and events in this manner, researchers may be better able to
argue that momentum actually can be defined by game events. If a lack of
agreement occurs, it may show that momentum is truly a psychological
feeling/emotion that may escape objective evaluation by specific
basketball game events. Future momentum research should also attempt to
use momentum trained/sport-specific experienced observers who attend
contests to record specific game events that may lead to objectively
quantifying this phenomenon in other sports.
References
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