Social Physique Anxiety and Eating Disorder Correlates Among Female Athletic and Nonathletic Populations.

Hausenblas, Heather A. ; Mack, Diane E.

Leary and his colleagues (1994) have suggested that eating pathologies stem in part from self-presentational concerns involving the physique. Due to the demands of the sport, female divers may have strong physical self-presentational concerns and be at-risk for developing eating pathologies. The purpose of the present study was to examine physical self-presentation (i.e., social physique anxiety) and eating disorder correlates among female divers. To this end, a sample of 36 elite female divers were compared to an athletic control group (i.e., lacrosse, volleyball, & soccer; n = 39) and a nonathletic control group (n = 39) on the attitudinal, behavioral, and psychological subscales of the Eating Disorder Inventory-2 (EDI-2; Garner, 1991) and the Social Physique Anxiety Scale (SPAS; Hart, Leary, & Rejeski, 1989). A one-way ANCOVA with Body Mass Index as the covariate revealed that the divers had significantly lower SPAS scores (M = 30.69, SD = 8.49) compared to the athletic control group (M = 37.53, SD = 8.78) and the nonathletic control group (M = 38.84, SD = 9.88), F(2, 106) = 3.88, p [less than] .05. In contrast, a one-way MANCOVA with Body Mass Index as the covariate revealed that the divers, the athletic control group, and the nonathletic control group did not differ significantly on the EDI-2 subscales, Wilks's Lambda = .85, F(16,45) = .95, ns.

Historical evidence from 1959 to 1988 has illustrated that there has been a continual shift toward an increasingly thinner physique in Western society (Garner, Garfinkel, Schwartz, & Thompson, 1980; Wiseman, Gray, Mosimann, & Ahrens, 1992). Currently the idealized physique encompasses both a thin and physically fit physique. This results in increased pressures for individuals--particularly women--to conform to unrealistic physical standards. In an attempt to achieve the 'ideal' physique women may engage in pathological dieting and eating behaviors (Brownell, 1991).

The most serious consequences of pathological dieting and eating behaviors are eating disorders (Wilson & Eldredge, 1992). Eating disorders are multifaceted and originate from a diverse set of antecedents (e.g., biological, psychological, and sociocultural; cf. Johnson, 1994). Leary, Tchividjian, and Kraxberger (1994) have suggested that self-presentational concerns may be another antecedent of eating disorders. Self-presentation involves the selective presentation and omission of aspects of the self to create desired impressions and to avoid undesired impressions (Leary, 1992). Thus, it is conceivable that people's concerns with how they are regarded by others (i.e., thin physique) may increase their risk of pathological eating and dieting behaviors in an attempt to convey positive impressions.

For example, Hayes and Ross (1987) suggested that excessive concerns about one's social image may lead women to starve or purge themselves in an attempt to be thin. Further, women with eating disorders also tend to a have high need for social approval, experience high social anxiety and low self-esteem (APA, 1994; Gross & Rosen, 1988; Katzman & Wolchik, 1984). As self-esteem, social anxiety, and the need for social approval are also concomitants of self-presentational concerns, it is possible that a relationship exists between eating disorders and self-presentation (Leary et al., 1994). Thus, a self-presentational understanding of the etiology of women's concerns with eating and dieting behaviors may have implications in identifying the extreme manifestations of these behaviors--eating disorders (Pliner & Chaiken, 1990).

For example, researchers have found a relationship between the self-presentational concern of social physique anxiety (i.e., the anxiety that results from the social evaluation of one's physique; Hart, Leary, & Rejeski, 1989) and eating disorder correlates (Diehl, Johnson, Petrie, & Rogers, 1995; Reel & Gill, 1996). Further, it has been suggested that eating disordered individuals have a fear of negative evaluation that may stem from a fear that others will perceive their weight or physical appearance as inconsistent with social norms (Bulik, Beidel, Duchmann, Weltzin, & Kaye, 1991). Thus, it is conceivable that social physique anxiety may represent an additional risk factor for the development of disordered eating, especially for individuals who are frequently in physique evaluative situations. The current study examined the relationship between social physique anxiety and eating disorder correlates.

One population that may be at-risk for both self-presentational concerns regarding the physique and eating disorders are competitive divers. In regards to self-presentational concerns, divers compete and train in situations where self-presentational concerns regarding the physique may be more pronounced. For example, divers must train and compete in revealing attire that places the physique on evaluative display and often magnifies bodily flaws (Reel & Gill, 1996). Second, diving is a sport where success is determined through subjective evaluation by judges (Thompson & Sherman, 1993). Therefore, besides obvious physical skill, divers ability to convey impressions of grace, strength, agility, and attractiveness can affect their evaluation by the judges (Brownell & Steen, 1992). Third, the individual (versus team) nature of the sport activity, in which accountability for performance is readily discernable, may result in heighten emphasis of the physique (Carron & Prapavessis, 1997). Thus, due to the heightened focus on appearance, divers may experience social physique anxiety in an attempt to convey positive impressions. The present study explored this possibility.

In regards to eating disorders, it has been suggested that divers represent a population at-risk for eating pathologies due to the aesthetic and subjective nature of the sport (Thompson & Sherman, 1993). However, despite suggestions that divers are at high-risk for eating disorders, this hypothesis has received little empirical attention. When divers have been examined in relation to eating disorder correlates they have been studied within a larger pool of athletes (e.g., Petrie, 1996; Sundgot-Borgen, 1994). Thus, the examination of eating disorder correlates within a large population of divers is warranted.

In general, although studies have found athletes to be at high-risk for eating disorders, just as many studies have come to opposite conclusions (e.g., Sundgot-Borgen, 1993; Wilkins, Boland, & Albinson, 1991). Inherent in this equivocality is a host of methodological and conceptual problems such as the use of invalidated instruments (Stein, 1991), inappropriately matched controls (Ashley, Smith, Robinson, & Richardson, 1996), inconsistent classification of sports into various categories, and failure to consider actual physical size as a covariate (Petrie, 1996).

In summary, the purpose of the present study was to examine self-presentational concerns related to the physique (i.e., social physique anxiety) and eating disorder correlates among female divers. First, a well-validated psychological scale was used to assess eating disorder correlates--the Eating Disorder Inventory-2 (Garner, 1991). Second, appropriate match controls for age and sex were examined. Specifically, divers, who compete in a judged event where appearance (i.e., body weight and shape) plays a central role in the athlete's outcome, were compared with an athletic control group (i.e., volleyball, soccer, & lacrosse) where appearance does not directly influence performance, and a nonathletic control group. Finally, an estimate of physical size was used as a covariate to control for the potential influence of physical size in regards to the eating disorder correlates (Petrie, 1996) and social physique anxiety (Hart et al., 1989).

It was hypothesized that due to the performance evaluative nature of diving, competitive divers would experience greater social physique anxiety than the athletic control group and nonathletic control group. Second, due to the inconsistent results in the literature no a priori hypotheses were made regarding the correlates of eating disorders among the divers, the athletic control group, and the nonathletic control group. Finally, it was hypothesized that social physique anxiety would be predicted by the attitudinal, psychological, and behavioral correlates of eating disorders (as measured by the EDI-2 subscales).

Method

Participants

Participants were 114 volunteer female athletes and nonathletes. The female divers were 36 elite athletes competing at the national or provincial level (age M = 16.33 years, SD = 2.44). The athletic control group was comprised of 39 elite athletes competing in either volleyball, lacrosse, or soccer at the regional or provincial level (age M = 17.35 years, SD = 2.85). Approximately 87% of the athletes were attending high school. The nonathletic control group (n = 39) were high school students who were not currently engaging in more than one hour of physical activity a week (age M = 17.38 years, SD = .49). The three groups did not significantly differ in regards to age, F(2, 1ll) = 2.80, ns.

Measures

Eating Disorder Inventory-2 (EDI-2). The 8 subscales of the EDI-2 that reflect the attitudinal, behavioral, and psychological correlates of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa were used (Garner, 1991). The Drive for Thinness subscale assesses excessive concerns with dieting, preoccupation with weight, as well as the extreme pursuit of thinness. The Bulimia subscale provides a measure of the tendency to engage in binging that may be followed by an impulse to vomit. The Body Dissatisfaction subscale measures dissatisfaction with the shape of body parts such as hips, buttocks, and the belief that these parts are too big or fat. The Ineffectiveness subscale measures feelings of worthlessness and lack of control over one's life. The Perfectionism subscale measures the extent to which one believes that personal achievements should be superior. The Interpersonal Distrust subscale assesses an individual's general feeling of alienation and reluctance to form close relationships. The Interoceptive Awareness subscale assesses confusion and apprehension in recognizing and accurately responding to emotional states. And the Maturity Fears subscale measures the desire to retreat to the security of childhood. High scores of these subscales relative to published norms, indicate that an individual may be at greater risk for developing eating disorders.

The EDI-2 has acceptable psychometric properties. Measures of internal consistency have been reported to range from 0.80 to 0.92 (Garner, 1991), while test-retest reliabilities were between 0.65 to 0.97 (Wear & Pratz, 1987).

Social Physique Anxiety Scale (SPAS). The SPAS is a 12-item self-report inventory developed by Hart et al. (1989) to measure social physique anxiety. Participants are asked to indicate the degree to which statements are characteristic or true of them using a 5-point Likert scale. The SPAS has demonstrated adequate construct validity (Hart et al., 1989; McAuley & Burman, 1993), test-retest reliability, internal consistency (alpha = .90), and minimal social desirability bias (Hart et al., 1989). [1]

Body Mass Index (BMI) and Demographic Information. Participants provided information concerning their current height, weight, and age. The BMI was calculated from the participants self-reported measures of height and weight because a direct measurement of body fat could not be obtained. The BMI has been suggested as a better measure of nutritional status (i.e., under or overweight) than standard weight tables (Garrow, 1981; in Beaumont, A1-Alami, & Touyz, 1988) because it is both objective and easy to calculate and is a useful criterion for identifying those with eating disorders (Beaumont et al., 1988). While BMIs' based on self-reports could conceivably be unreliable, previous research has indicated high correlations between self-reported and actual measures of height and weight (Davis, 1990).

Procedure

Participants were informed that they were participating in a research study whose stated purpose was to assess attitudes towards their physique and eating. Participants were informed that completion of the questionnaire was voluntary and confidential. If less than 18 years of age, confirmation of parental/guardian consent was obtained. Once consent was obtained the participants completed the questionnaires and either returned them directly to the experimenters or placed them in a sealed envelope to be mailed to the experimenters.

Results

Reliability of Measurement

Cronbach's alpha was calculated on the SPAS and EDI-2 subscales. The SPAS was found to have satisfactory internal consistency with an alpha coefficient of .88. The 8 subscales of the EDI-2 demonstrated sufficient internal consistency with an alpha coefficient ranging from .72 for the Maturity Fears and Bulimia subscales to .92 for the Body Dissatisfaction subscale.

EDI-2, SPAS, and BMI Scores

Means and standard deviations of the SPAS, EDI-2 subscales, and BMI for the divers, the athletic control group, and the nonathietic control group are presented in Table 1. For comparison purposes, normative scores for a female clinical population are also presented (Garner, 1991). Single sample t-tests revealed that the mean subscale scores for the female clinical population from Garner (1991) were higher than all the mean subscale scores for the divers, the athletic control group, and the nonathletic control group at p [less than].05. The only exception was that no significant differences were found between the clinical population and the nonathietic and athletic control group on the desire to retreat to the security of childhood as measured by the Maturity Fears subscales. The significantly lower EDI-2 subscale scores of the divers and athletic control group compared to the female clinical population illustrated that the female athletes were not at-risk for eating disorder correlates.

A one-way multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) with BMI as the covariate was undertaken to determine if the EDI-2 subscale scores differed across the divers, the athletic control group, and the nonathletic control group. The MANCOVA, conducted with the eight EDI-2 subscales as the dependent variables and the three groups as the independent variables was nonsignificant, Wilks's Lambda = .85, F(16,45) .95, ns. Thus, no separate univariate analyses were conducted. Therefore, the divers, the athletic control group, and the nonathletic control group did not differ significantly on the EDI-2 subscales.

A one-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) indicated that SPAS scores differed significantly across the three groups, F(2,106) = 3.88, p [less than].05. In contrast to the hypothesis, post hoc analyses revealed that the divers (M = 30.69, SD = 8.49) had significantly lower SPAS scores than the athletic control group (M = 37.53, SD = 8.78), and the nonathletic control group (M = 38.84, SD =9.88).

Relationship Between SPAS and EDI-2 Subscales

Two separate analyses were conducted to examine the predictive relationship between SPAS and the EDI-2 subscales. First, to test if social physique anxiety could be predicted by the behavioral and attitudinal correlates of eating disorders (i.e., Bulimia, Drive for Thinness, and Body Dissatisfaction), stepwise multiple-regression was performed. The results of this analysis indicated that the attitudinal and behavioral subscales of the EDI-2 combined to account for 66% of the total variance in SPAS scores, F(3,109) = 70.81,p [less than].01. However, only the Body Dissatisfaction and the Drive for Thinness subscales contributed significantly to the model.

Second, to test if social physique anxiety could be predicted by the psychological correlates of eating disorders (i.e., Maturity Fears, Ineffectiveness, Interpersonal Distrust, Interoceptive Awareness, and Perfectionism), stepwise multiple-regression was performed. The results of the analysis revealed the psychological subscales accounted for 35% of the total variance in SPAS scores, F(5, 103) = 11.15, p[less than].01. However, only the Ineffectiveness subscale, which assesses individual's general feelings of alienation, contributed significantly to the model.

Discussion

The present study produced several noteworthy findings regarding eating disorder correlates and social physique anxiety in female divers, an athletic control group, and a nonathletic control group. First, contrary to expectations, female divers reported significantly less social physique anxiety than the athletic control group and the nonathletic control group. Given divers low social physique anxiety scores, it appears that they are comfortable with their physical self-presentation, and have minimal self-presentational concerns regarding their bodies. Thus, even though competitive divers compete and train in revealing attire and are evaluated subjectively by judges, they did not report heighten social physique anxiety.

One possible explanation for this finding, is that divers through repeated exposure of their bodies in training and competition become desensitized to self-presentational concerns (Eklund & Crawford, 1994). That is, after involvement in competitive diving, self-presentation regarding the physique may become routine. A post hoc analysis was conducted to examine this possibility. However, no significant correlation was found between years competing in diving and SPAS scores, r = .06, ns. Thus, repeated exposure does not appear to account for divers' lower SPAS scores.

Another possible explanation for this finding may be that those individuals with high social physique anxiety may have selectively retired from competitive diving because they lack the 'ideal' physique. That is, to remain competitive in a specific sport, a variety of physical and psychological factors are required. In regard to the physique, researchers have found that individuals with a particular body type tend to gravitate towards and be most successful in certain sports (Hollings & Robinson, 1991; Ross, Brown, Yu, & Faulker, 1977). Thus, individuals who perceive that their physique represents a disadvantage to successful performance may retire from the sport before aspiring to elite levels of competition. As well, athletes in certain sports may be subject to greater external pressures (e.g., coach) to have a particular physique. Perhaps divers without the stereo-typical thin build may have been persuaded out of the sport before the elite level.

Another possible explanation for the observed differences on the SPAS between the divers and the athletic control group may be a function of the differences in competitive levels. The divers were competing at the national/provincial level, whereas the athletic control group was competing at the provincial/regional level. Social physique anxiety has been found to be negatively correlated with confidence in one's physical self-presentation in gymnasts (McAuley & Burman, 1993) and in an undergraduate population (Martin & Mack, 1996). Thus, it is possible that the lower levels of social physique anxiety found in the divers may, in part, be due to the higher confidence these elite athletes have in their physical self-presentation.

Second, no differences were found between the divers, the athletic control group, and the nonathletic control group in regards to the correlates associated with eating disorders. The suggestion that divers may represent a group of athletes that are at-risk of developing eating pathologies was not supported (Thompson & Sherman, 1993). Also, the suggestion that female athletes in general are under increased risk of developing eating disorders was not supported (e.g., Burkes-Miller & Black, 1988). Our findings support Ashley et al. (1996) conclusion that neither athletics in general nor a particular type of athletics predispose individuals to exhibit the correlates associated with eating disorders.

Finally, the present study supports the suggestion that self-presentational concerns regarding the physique would be predicted by the correlates associated with eating disorders. Results revealed that dissatisfaction with the shape of the body and an extreme concern with dieting and thinness were strong predictors of social physique anxiety. Body dissatisfaction is generally viewed as a major factor responsible for initiating and then sustaining the weight controlling behaviors of those with eating disorders (Garner, 1991). And the intense drive for thinness or fear of fatness, as measured by the Drive for Thinness subscale, has been described as the core psychopathology of both anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa (Garner, 1991).

As well, the Ineffectiveness subscale which assesses feelings of general inadequacy, insecurity, worthlessness, emptiness, and lack of control over one's life was a strong predictor of social physique anxiety (Garner, 1991). Ineffectiveness is conceptually very similar to poor self-esteem or negative self-evaluation, which are associated with self-presentational concerns. As Leary et al. (1994) suggested, self-presentational motives may be hazardous to one's health in that impression management may play a role in disordered eating. Further research is necessary to examine the causal relationship of this finding. If self-presentational concerns regarding the physique place some individuals at-risk for developing eating disorders, assessing social physique anxiety may enable early detection of individuals at-risk for eating disorders. However, to further examine this possibility social physique anxiety must be assessed with eating disordered populations.

In conclusion, the results of the present study suggest that despite the aesthetic performance demands and self-presentation of the physique, female divers experience minimal levels of social physique anxiety and were not at-risk for eating disorder correlates. Thus, involvement in activities that emphasize physical self-presentation does not necessarily place females at-risk for developing eating disorder correlates. It is important to note that the data collected were from a volunteer sample that relied exclusively on self-reports for assessment. Future research is needed to verify the results of this study using more diverse and reliable methods (e.g., behavioral observations).

Note

(1.) There has been on ongoing debate regarding the psychometric and conceptual properties of the SPAS. Originally the SPAS was proposed as a unidimensional construct (Hart et al., 1989), and further analysis have confirmed this (McAuley & Burman, 1993). Subsequently, however, Eklund, Mack, and Hart (1996) have provided empirical support for a multidimensional SPAS. Most recently, Martin, Rejeski, Leary, McAuley, and Bain (1997) have argued both empirically and conceptually that the SPAS should be viewed as a unidimensional scale. Consequently, three sets of analysis were undertaken with (a) the unidimensional SPAS (12-item; Hart et al., 1989), (b) the multidimensional SPAS (Eklund et al., 1996). and (c) the unidimensional SPAS (9-items; Martin et al., 1997). In the three sets of analysis, the results were similar. The results reported in the current study are from the unidimensional 12-item SPAS (Hart et al., 1989). The results from the multidimensional SPAS and the 9-item SPAS are available upon request fr om the first author.

Address Correspondence To: Heather A. Hausenblas, Department of Exercise and Sport Sciences, University of Florida, PO Box 118205, Room 146 Florida Gym, Gainesville, FL 32611-8205. Phone: 352-392-0584; Fax: 352-392-5262; E-mail: heatherh@hhp.ufl.edu

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Means and Standard Deviation Scores for the Body Mass Index (BMI), Social Physique Anxiety Scale (SPAS) and Eating Disorder Inventory-2 Subscales (EDI-2) for the Divers, Athletic Control Group, Nonathletic Control Group, and Female Clinical Population

Variable Divers Athletic Nonathletic Female
 Control Control Clinical Population
 n = 36 n = 39 n = 39 N = 889
 M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) M (SD)
BMI [**] 19.8(2.3) 21.8(2.2) 22.4(4.7) --
SPAS 30.8(8.5) 37.7(8.7) 39.3(9.8) --
EDI-2
 Bulimia 1.2(1.7) 1.7(8.7) 1.2(1.9) 10.5(5.5) [*]
 Drive for Thinness 3.3(4.0) 6.0(5.2) 5.5(5.6) 14.5(5.6)
 Body Dissatisfaction 7.4(6.3) 11.6(8.1) 12.6(8.6) 16.6(8.3)
 Ineffectiveness 2.5(3.1) 3.6(8.1) 4.7(5.5) 11.3(7.8)
 Interoceptive Awareness 2.8(3.5) 4.9(6.2) 4.0(4.0) 11.0(6.9)
 Interpersonal Distrust 3.7(2.1) 2.9(3.0) 4.0(4.3) 5.8(4.7)
 Maturity Fears 3.4(2.1) 4.4(4.5) 4.1(3.1) 4.5(6.9)
 Perfectionism 5.1(3.9) 6.5(4.5) 6.5(4.5) 8.9(4.9)

Note. Mean scale scores for the female clinical population are from Garner (1991).

(*.)N = 760 (does not include anorexia nervosa-restricting type).

(**.)The divers had significantly lower BMI scores that the athletic and nonathletic control groups, F(2, 107) = 6.00, p[less than].01.