The graduate assistant coach: role conflicts in the making.

Dunn, Thomas P. ; Dunn, Sandra Long

The Graduate Assistant Coach (GAC) has long occupied a significant position in the organization of intercollegiate athletics. Since the status was created by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) in 1976, the experience gained while serving as a GAC has come to be regarded as extremely important, if not crucial, to the career development of those who aspire to become full-time coaches. It appears, however, that prior to the present study, the men and women who have achieved this important status have never been the object of systematic inquiry.

The nationwide survey upon which this paper reports was conducted between November, 1990 and January, 1991. It is the purpose of this paper to analyze the experiences of GACs from the perspective of role theory.

Since its proliferation in the 1930s, role theory has occupied a prominent position among the core ideas that constitute the sociological perspective. It has been estimated that at least 10% of all articles published in sociological journals make use of the role concept (Biddie, 1986). Like many other important sociological concepts, the concept of role has been the object of intense debate as to how it might best be theoretically and operationally defined. In his insightful overview of the role concept, Biddie (1986) identified five distinct theoretical perspectives that have been formulated to deal with the concept (functional, symbolic interactionist, structural, organizational, and cognitive) and further noted that a great deal of research has been generated by the organizational perspective (that defines a role in terms of expectations for behaviors associated with a status position). Much of this research has focused on practical concerns, as well as derived concepts such as role conflict (defined in terms of incompatible expectations for status-related behaviors). It is assumed that role conflict results in strain, the resolution of which is clearly in the best interest of the individual and the organization.

Previous Work

Although there have apparently been no studies of the role problems of GACs, the role problems of full-time coaches have come under scrutiny in recent years. Of particular concern have been the role conflicts experienced by teacher/coaches. Since these conflicts tend to parallel, but are not necessarily identical to, those reported by GACs, only the earliest and one of the more recent studies of full-time coaches will be reviewed here.

In their groundbreaking study of teacher/coaches at the college, secondary, and middle/elementary levels, Locke and Massengale (1987) utilized a role conflict inventory comprised of questions related to the three areas of occupational conflict (Value Conflict, Status Conflict, and Self/Other Conflict) introduced by Grace (1972). They added two additional areas that, based on the folklore of physical education and athletics, seemed to be particularly relevant to teacher/coaches (Load Conflict and Teacher/Coach Conflict). An analysis of questionnaire data obtained from 201 teacher coaches led to their conclusion that "Load Conflicts and Teacher/Coach Conflicts constitute widespread and intensively experienced role problems for the teacher/coach" (Locke & Massengale, 1987).

More recently, Sage (1987) has documented the multiple role demands made on the teacher/coach and the persuasiveness of role stress associated with role overload and coach/family, as well as teacher/coach role conflicts. Based on a lengthy field study of high school teacher/coaches, Sage concluded that his data "supplement and extend previous research on teacher/coaches and "... demonstrate quite dramatically the complexity and pervasiveness of role overload and interrole conflict in this occupation and the role strain that results" (Sage, 1987).

Methodology

The Questionnaire

The questionnaire and postage-paid return envelope (addressed to the Social Research Lab at Western Kentucky University) allowed respondents to participate in the survey anonymously. Data on the respondents' demographic characteristics, attitudes and opinions, athletic careers, current status as a graduate assistant coach, future plans, and educational backgrounds were obtained with close-ended questions, while open-ended questions (Such as, "What other information would you like people to know about graduate assistant coaches?") provided the opportunity for elaboration and additional comments.

Subjects

A purposive sample of 45 universities was chosen from among the members of athletic conferences and major independents who compete at the Division I level of the NCAA. Conferences represented in the survey included the Atlantic Coast, Big Ten, Southeastern, Southwest, and Pacific Ten.

Procedure

In an effort to ensure that the maximum number of questionnaires actually reached the male and female graduate assistant coaches at a given university, one of the principal investigators made a personal phone call to the Office of the Athletic Director and obtained the name of the person who would be in the best position to distribute the questionnaires to all appropriate respondents. The principal investigator then contacted, explained the general nature of the survey, and obtained the agreement of the contact person to receive the questionnaires and distribute them to all graduate assistant coaches in the men's and women's athletic programs (occasionally a separate contact person had to be identified for the men's and women's programs). The contact person also provided pertinent information as to how many questionnaires would be needed to accommodate all of the graduate assistant coaches. It is interesting to note that the number of questionnaires requested ranged from 3 to 50. A total of 588 questionnaires were sent to the 45 universities included in the survey. One hundred ninety-eight fully completed questionnaires were returned.

The GAC: A Profile

Demographic Characteristics

The 198 graduate assistant coaches who participated in the survey were comprised of 77% males and 23% females. The sample ranged in age from 22-42 years (with a modal age of 24 and a median age of 25). Whites comprised 89% of the respondents while 6% were African American and 2% were Asian ("Other" represented 3%). With regard to marital status, 69% had never been married, 28% were currently married, and 3% were divorced.

Athletic and GAC Careers

Approximately 94% of the respondents participated in intercollegiate athletics as an undergraduate, with 73% of those having been on a full or partial athletic scholarship. Football was the primary sport for most (53%), while basketball (11%), track and field (7%), and baseball (7%) also accounted for significant numbers of respondents. The vast majority (90%) of the respondents who played an intercollegiate sport were serving as a GAC in the same sport. Somewhat surprisingly, however, only 18% of them became a GAC at the same university where they had played.

Educational Background

As undergraduates, 35% of the respondents majored in physical education and recreation, while 14% majored in teacher education. Other academic majors attracting 5% or more of the respondents were history, psychology, and management and marketing. The range of undergraduate grade point averages among the respondents was 2.1 to 3.8, with 40% having a GPA of 3.0 or better (only 11% had GPAs of 2.5 or less). Approximately 55% graduated in 4 112 years or fewer while 45% took 5 years or longer to complete their degrees. The vast majority (89%) were working on masters degrees, with 37% taking an average of 6 hours per semester, 32% taking 9 or 10 hours per semester, and 14% taking more than 10 hours per semester. Their GPAs as graduate students had risen sharply from their undergraduate counterparts, with 99% reporting a current GPA of 3.0 or better at the time of this study.

Future Plans

Only 28% were planning to pursue a degree beyond that which they were currently working towards. Not surprisingly, 76% had planned to pursue a career in full-time coaching. It is also interesting to note that although 32% were at one time considered to be a prospect for a career as a professional athlete, only 2% were currently considered a pro prospect.

Annual Stipend

Only 55 of the 198 graduate assistant coaches failed to respond to the optional question concerning their annual stipend. The annual stipends among those who did respond ranged from a low of $1,400 to a high of $20,000. The top 25% received between $8,600 and $20,000, the middle 50% received between $4,500 and $8,500, and the lower 25% received between $1,400 and $4,400.

The GAC: Role Problems

In addition to the data that served as the basis for the profile presented above, the questionnaire included both open- and closed-ended questions dealing with the respondents' feelings about their duties as GACs. Their responses clearly revealed that, as "student/coaches" they had begun to encounter many of the same role problems that have been documented previously among the ranks of full-time coaches.

Role Overload and Frustration

Perhaps the most impressive finding of the survey was the magnitude of the workload encountered by GACs. Seventy percent of the respondents indicated that, when their sport was in season, they spent 30 or more hours per week attending to their coaching responsibilities, while 30% reported that they devoted 75 or more hours per week (with 9% reporting over 100 hours per week). In addition to the large amount of time they devoted to coaching, the nature of their work appeared to be very stressful. For example, 80% did not feel that they had a great deal of power and, perhaps as a result, 53% considered the position of GAC to be "very stressful." Their frustration can also be seen in the fact that only 17% indicated that they were having more fun coaching than playing their sport.

The open-ended question "What other information would you like people to know about GACs?" produced a large number of responses dealing with the stress and frustration associated with being a GAC. Among the most revealing were the following:

I never realized how lucky I had it as a player. All I had to do was play and party. Now I almost live at the stadium. There are no hours. There is always something else to do and the GAs always get the cruddy jobs. The GA who played here does OK but the rest of us get dumped on.

The head coach isn't to [sic] bad but the assistants treat us like dirt. But if I ever said anything to him I know he would take there [sic] side.

One of the most frustrating aspects of the job is being given responsibility without authority. Since I am older than many of the GA's I have more experience and I hope I am more responsible. I am often upset why I am treated as one of "the kids." I am a grown woman capable of managing many tasks in the administrative side of athletics. I feel like I am not an integral part of the team. I don't fit in as a player or a coach.

We are not just gophers and are trying to learn something to get into the profession. I don't mind a lot of responsibility as long as I am treated as an equal for the job I do. Coaches forget too soon what it was like to be a GA. They need to ask us for our own opinions more often, because GA's do have some ideas that could be of use, but coaches think we are stupid and have no ideas.

Being a GAC is not what you expect it to be. I thought I would learn more football and do some on the field coaching. I was wrong about both. The position of graduate assistant coach is a joke. It should be graduate assistant gopher.

This is my second year and I still haven't done any coaching. All I get are the [bleep] details. I can't believe I left a good high school job for this [bleep].

A second open-ended question, "What question might be added to future surveys of GACs?" also produced some thought-provoking responses:

How many nights do you sleep in your office?

Would you like to become unionized?

Do you receive the perks the other staff members receive (Bowl game shirts, rings, free meals)?

Do the full-time coaches treat you with respect?

How many hours a graduated assistant works a day, week, month compared to the money the receive? We work a total of 14 hours a day during the fall season 5:30 to 7:30.

Do we ever get to do any coaching?

Role Conflict

As in the case with full-time coaches, the GACs most frequently reported role conflicts between the roles associated with their status in the educational system and those associated with their status as coaches. Only 35% indicated their coaching duties allowed them sufficient time to study, and many of the responses to the open-ended questions reflected the student-coach conflicts:

One of my professors is big on group projects. I really don't have the time to do my share. It's going to kill my grade.

I'm so far behind in two of my classes that I can never catch up. If I drop them I will have to go to summer school on my own to keep my assistantship.

When other graduate students are going to the library I'm going to the locker room. Some of my professors hate sports and could care less about my problems. It's not too bad for the PE majors, but the rest of us are always in trouble in our classes.

There aren't enough hours in the day to be a student, a husband and a GA. Something has to give. Right now it's my grades. Whenever I do find time to study I usually fall asleep at my desk.

When your sport is in season you can kiss your grades goodbye! I have to miss so many classes I never know what is going on. I try to get the notes, but they really don't help much.

Not expected to go to class or are you encouraged to. There's not enough time in the day to do your work, go to class and study. There aren't many coaching jobs out there. Some people I've met have been GAs for 6 to 10 years.

In addition to these comments, the suggestions for questions to be asked on future surveys of GACs provided insights into the student-coach role conflicts:

How much time do you spend studying each week? How much time do you spend in the gym?

Do the full-time coaches care about your courses?

How many GACs ever get their degrees?

Do the GAs who major in PE or education get special treatment?

How frequently do you miss class because of coaching responsibilities? Did you choose your major field of Graduate study because of your interest in the field, the reputation of the university in that field, or because it best fit into your time schedule? Are you obtaining a Master's degree because it is necessary to be promoted in your field of work or because it provides you with the necessary contacts in gaining promotion in your sport?

Role Ambiguity

In addition to the role problems they shared with their full-time coaching counterparts, GACs appeared to have a problem of their own: role ambiguity. As typically defined, role ambiguity refers to unclear expectations associated with a particular social status (Schaffer & Lamm, 1992). For GACs, the unclear expectations were derived from 1) their "in-between" status (between the players and the full-time coaches) and 2) the inconsistent and sometimes conflicting demands placed upon them by two or more of the full-time coaches. With regard to the former, 73% of the respondents perceived themselves to be a "person in the middle" between the players and the full-time coaches. Their responses to the open-ended questions reflected the stress associated with occupying this ill-defined status:

The players expect me to be there [sic] friend. The coaches here don't believe in fraturnization [sic]. I don't think anybody likes GACs very much.

Six months ago I was playing with some of these guys. Now I'm supposed to push them. They don't say anything but sometimes they look at me funny.

It's weird. I used to be pulling the stuff I'm supposed to report now. Last year when I was working in the dorm I had to report a curfew violation. After that I was never one of the guys.

The hardest part is being close in age to the student athletes and not being able to socialize with them. The people that you work with are usually older so it is difficult to "hang out" with them. The most important thing that I suggest that head coaches do is to outline exactly what duties they want the grad. asst. to perform prior to starting.

The role ambiguity that produced the most emotional responses may be traced to the inconsistencies in expectations for GACs as transmitted by the full-time assistant coaches. The following comments reflect the frustration associated with this form of role ambiguity:

They are always changing their minds as to what they want me to do! Most of the time I don't know what the hell to do!

One coach tells me to do one thing and 10 minutes later another coach tells me to do something else. No matter what I do I'm usually in trouble with somebody.

The assistant coaches have forgotten what it is like to be a GC. They run us ragged. They make us do all of the [bleep] jobs. Even when we win all I ever hear about is what I did wrong.

Discussion

Although the comments of most of those who responded to the open-ended questions reflected the role problems described in this paper, there were some GACs who chose to emphasize the positive aspects of the position:

I feel it is a good entry level position and allows individuals to gain valuable experience while furthering their education.

The GA positions are transition periods from that of ex-athlete to coach, or interested sports enthusiast and educated pursuits [sic] combined together toward an anticipated career. This transition has many education, human developmental, and behavioral steps that place the GA in a peculiar position in life.

Not surprisingly, however, the aspect of being a GAC that generated the most consensus among all respondents was the frustration associated with perceived inadequacy of financial rewards. Almost 80% of the respondents agreed or strongly agreed with the statement "The financial rewards I am receiving as a GAC are inadequate for the amount of work l do." Typical comments included the following:

They don't make enough money! Some graduate assistants I know are having a lot of financial problems.

The lack of compensation for the effort served. To make $6,000 a year and pay rent, utilities, car insurance, health insurance, and day to day expenses is a stressful situation in itself.

The financial needs of a GAC are far from met. Housing, transportation, books, meals, as well as insurance should be considered. There is no possible way that a GAC can make it on the current stipend. It is a slave-like abused position.

The money is usually not adequate for "survival" GAs are the most overworked and underpaid group of coaches. I do hope that if I ever get to be a head coach I will be more flexible and understanding with regard to supplemental employment.

The stipend doesn't cover expenses - must apply for student loan if you expect to finish school and have enough money left over to cover basic expenses.

The pay really sucks! Where else can you get someone to work for .50 an hour?

The conclusion that GACs experience some of the same role problems as their mentors, as well as some additional role problems of their own, is clearly supported by the survey data. However, the magnitude of the problems must be interpreted with caution. The tone of the negative comments reflects the seemingly omnipresent "gripe factor" that permeates the workplace (Locke & Massengale, 1987). Indeed, for all of their role problems, 84% of the GACs who participated in the survey indicated that they had "made the right decision" in becoming a GAC.

References

Biddle, B.J. (1986). Recent Developments in Role Theory. In Ralph H. Turner (Ed.), Annual Review of Sociology. (pp. 67-92). Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews.

Coakley, J.J. (1990). Sport in Society. Boston, MA: Times Mosby/Mirror.

Grace, G.R. (1972). Role Conflict and the Teacher. Boston, MA: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

Locke, Lawrence F. & Massengale, John D. (1978). Role Conflict in Teacher/Coaches. Research Quarterly, 49(2), 162-174.

Sage, George H. (1987). The Social World of High School Athletic Coaches: Multiple Role Demands and Their Consequences. Sociology of Sport Journal, 4, 213-228.

Schaefer, Richard T. & Lamm, Robert P. (1992). Sociology. St. Louis, MO: McGraw-Hill.

Author Notes

This paper was presented at the meetings of the Mid-South Sociological Association, Montgomery, Alabama, October, 1993.

Direct all correspondence to Dr. Thomas P. Dunn, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Western Kentucky University, 1526 Russellville Road. Bowling Green, KY, 42101-3576.

Notes

1. Article 11.02.4 of the 1990 NCAA Bylaws defined a GAC as "Any coach who has received a baccalaureate degree and is a graduate assistant enrolled in at least 50% of the institution's minimum regular program of studies."

2. The survey was prompted in part by the anticipated actions of the NCAA regarding the status of GACs. As anticipated, GACs were greatly effected by cost-cutting legislation passed by representatives of the member institutions of the NCAA at their January, 1991 meetings in Nashville, Tennessee. Under the new guidelines, which took effect August 1, 1992, GACs are designated as "Restricted Earnings Coaches," along with part-time and volunteer assistant coaches. Although the number of restricted-earnings coaches allowed for different sports varies under the new guidelines, the overall number of GACs has declined dramatically and the position itself appears to be in jeopardy for all sports except football.

3. The coaching profession has been examined from a variety of sociological and psychological perspectives. The most prominent approaches have viewed coaches in terms of 1) their personal and behavioral characteristics, 2) their roles as agents of socialization, 3) their status as an occupational subculture, and 4) their role conflicts. For an overview of these perspectives see Coakley, 1990.

For further information, please contact:

Thomas P. Dunn Department of Sociology and Antropology Western Kentucky University Bowling Green, KY 42101