Psychological factors associated with alcohol use by high school athletes.

Green, Elizabeth K. ; Burke, Kevin L. ; Nix, Charles L. 等

The most widely used and abused recreational drug by athletes is alcohol (Gay, Minelli, Tripp, & Keilitz, 1990; Overman & Terry, 1991). Studies have examined the frequency and intensity of alcohol use by athletes (Anderson, Albrecht, Hough, & McGraw, 1991; Anderson & McKeag, 1985; Heitzinger & Heitzinger, 1986), the athletes' attitudes toward the uses of alcohol (Flynn & Shoemaker, 1989; Overman & Terry, 1991), and identified specific psychological factors associated with athletes' uses of alcohol (Evans, Weinberg, & Jackson, 1992). This research has focused mainly on alcohol use among professional and collegiate athletes, and has virtually overlooked alcohol use among high school athletes.

The lack of research concerning alcohol use among high school athletes may arise from the traditional myth that high school athletes are more inclined to avoid using alcohol than high school non-athletes (Muldoon, 1986). This myth assumes high school athletes will avoid using alcohol because of its adverse affects on training and because athletes do not have the time to become involved with alcohol (Carr, Kennedy, & Dimick, 1990). Yet, research (Carr et al., 1990) indicates alcohol use is prevalent among high school athletes.

Several articles have been written which focus primarily on identifying specific psychological factors related to athlete alcohol use (Evans et al., 1992; Heyman, 1990; Tricker & Cook, 1990). Evans et al.'s (1992) study attempted to associate several psychological factors to alcohol use among collegiate athletes. These specific psychological factors were tension-anxiety, depression, anger, fatigue, vigor, confusion, and self-esteem. Evans et al.'s (1992) study also investigated whether pressures stemming from academics, parent(s) or guardian(s), and coaches relate to alcohol use by collegiate athletes.

High school coaches should play a significant role in the development and implementation of alcohol intervention programs for their athletes (Tricker & Cook, 1990). These intervention programs may be more effective if the focus is on making the high school athlete aware of how to identify signs and symptoms of specific psychological factors found to be associated with alcohol use. Once identified, athletes may be taught how to cope with these psychological factors. Therefore, it is imperative researchers identify specific psychological factors associated with alcohol use by high school athletes.

The purpose of this study was to replicate Evans, Weinberg, and Jackson's (1992) investigation by attempting to identify whether the following psychological factors were associated with alcohol use by high school athletes: tension-anxiety, depression, anger, fatigue, vigor, confusion, and self-esteem. This study also attempted to identify whether pressures resulting from academics, parents or guardians, and coaches were associated with alcohol use by high school athletes.

Method

Subjects

The subjects for this study were 300 male (n = 148) and female (n = 152) high school athletes, ages 16-18 (M = 16.56), from six Midwestern high schools. The athletes included sophomores (n = 119), juniors (n = 119), and seniors (n = 62).

These athletes had been members of at least one of the school's athletic teams for a minimum of one season. In many instances, these athletes participated on one to three different athletic teams (M = 2) each school year. These athletes were representatives of the following varsity and junior varsity sports: baseball (n = 26), basketball (n = 92), bowling (n = 2), cross country (n = 28), football (n = 60), gymnastics (n = 4), soccer (n = 66), softball (n = 41), swimming (n = 16), track and field (n = 111), volleyball (n = 23), and wrestling (n = 35).

Each athlete was administered four separate questionnaires: (1) demographic and academic questionnaire, (2) Profile of Mood States (POMS), (McNair, Lorr, & Droppleman, 1971), (3) Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (SEI), (Coopersmith, 1967), and (4) alcohol questionnaire. The researcher distributed 600 consent forms to high school student-athletes in six public high schools. The return of the consent form to the researcher was required for participation in this study. Three hundred of the 600 consent forms were rendered for a return rate of 50%. A total of 300 questionnaires and inventories were completed by student-athletes at six Midwestern public high schools. Parental consent and the athlete's assent was obtained before any questionnaire was administered to the athlete.

Apparatus

Demographic and Academic Questionnaire. The demographic and academic questionnaire was used to gather demographic characteristics on the athlete, such as age, gender, sport, and grade point average. Also, athletes responded on a 5 point intensity scale (1 signifying no pressure and 5 signifying extreme pressure) to seven questions addressing the pressures stemming from the role as a student-athlete.

Profile of Mood States. The POMS was used to measure six mood or affective states: tension-anxiety, depression, anger, vigor, fatigue, and confusion (McNair et al., 1971). Athletes responded on a 5-point intensity scale (1 signifying not at all and 5 signifying extremely) to a list of 65 words or phrases that describe moods or feelings one may have experienced over the past week or while completing the POMS. Tests were hand scored with overlay stencils provided by the Educational and Industrial Testing Service.

McNair, Lorr, and Droppleman (1971) suggest the POMS could prove useful in research involving adolescent subjects. Several research investigations (Craighead, Privette, Vallianos, & Brykit, 1986; McGowan & Miller, 1989; Tuckman, 1986) have indeed shown the usefulness of the POMS with adolescent populations. With respect to this study, Kunder-Richardson (KR20S) reliability estimates were calculated for the POMS subscales (r = .72). This coefficient indicates moderately strong inter-item consistency of the POMS for use with adolescent populations.

Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory. Each athlete's self-esteem was measured by the adult form of the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (Coopersmith, 1967). Athletes responded either "like me" or "unlike me" to 25 descriptive statements. A total self-esteem score was obtained by summing the self-esteem items answered correctly and multiplying this number by four.

Alcohol Questionnaire. The alcohol questionnaire (Evans et al., 1992) was used to gather information on the frequency, intensity, and duration of alcohol use by the athlete. Also, athletes responded to questions pertaining to the reasons why they use, do not use, or have stopped using alcohol.

Procedures

Athletic directors from ten Midwestern high schools were contacted via telephone to request their assistance in conducting this study at their school. Those six athletic directors who agreed to assist in this study were mailed a copy of the informed consent form and each questionnaire. A week later the athletic directors were contacted by telephone to confirm their assistance in this investigation.

The collection of data took place in two meetings with the athletes during either their physical education classes, health classes, or study halls. During the first meeting, the researcher explained the purpose of the study, answered any questions concerning the study, and distributed the consent forms to the student-athletes.

During the second meeting with the student-athletes, the consent forms were collected and questionnaires administered. All questionnaires were administered by one researcher. The researcher read the instructions for completing the questionnaire. In the case of the POMS, specific instructions on how to complete the POMS as specified by the Edits manual for the POMS (McNair, Lorr, & Droppleman, 1971) were followed.

Results

Descriptive Statistics. Descriptive statistics were tabulated on the questions comprising the alcohol questionnaire. Subjects who reported using alcohol at least once in the past 12 months were classified as an alcohol user and subjects who did not use alcohol in the past 12 months were classified as an alcohol nonuser. The users comprised 54.7% (N = -152) of the subject population and the nonusers comprised 45.3% (N = -148). The average number of alcoholic drinks consumed per day by the user group was 4. The users were found to have been consuming alcohol for an average of 2 years.

The primary reasons given by the student-athletes for using alcohol were to "have a good time with friends," "to celebrate", "to make the athlete feel good," and to "help the athlete deal with the worries and pressures of school." The reasons athletes gave for using alcohol, can be found in Table 1. Athletes also reported several "other" reasons for using alcohol that were not included as a choice on the alcohol questionnaire. Among these reasons were to "have something to do on the weekend," to "relax and be one's self around friends," and to "have fun at parties."

The three major reasons given by the student-athletes for not using alcohol were "concerns about the effects on health," the "athlete does not like alcohol," and the "use of alcohol is against the athlete's beliefs." There were several "other" reasons athletes gave for not using alcohol. Some of these reasons included alcohol use is "illegal by minors," "hurts athletic performance," "against coach's rules," and the "athlete is afraid of getting caught." The reasons athletes gave for not using alcohol are summarized in Table 2.

The last question on the alcohol questionnaire dealt with the frequency of alcohol use during the last competitive season. The results indicated 71.3% of the athletes did not consume any alcohol during their last competitive season. With regards to those athletes who did use alcohol during their last competitive season, 19.3% indicated using alcohol once or twice, 5.3% reported using alcohol three or four times, 1.7% reported using alcohol five or six times, and 2.3% reported using alcohol 7 or more times (Table 3).

Table 1

Reasons for Alcohol Use by Atletes (N = 164)

Reasons for Alcohol Use Alcohol
 %

Have a good time with friends 34.3

To celebrate 14.3

Makes the athlete feel good 3.7

Helps the athlete deal with the worries 1.0
and pressures of athletics

Other (indicated by athlete) 5.0

A 2 x 2 (behavior = alcohol user/non-user x gender = male/female) multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted to distinguish significant differences between users and nonusers on the POMS subscales. The MANOVA was used to decrease the likelihood of a type 1 error. The results of the MANOVA on the POMS subscales indicated no significant behavior-gender interaction effect, therefore overall multivariate main effects for behavior and gender were examined. A significant multivariate behavior main effect was found on the POMS subscales, Wilks lambda = .05, p [less than] .024.

Table 2

Reasons for Non-Alcohol Use by Athletes (N = 136)

Reasons for Alcohol Use Alcohol
 %

Athlete is concerned about the effects on health 14.3
Athlete does not like alcohol 10.0
Alcohol use is against athlete's beliefs 7.3
Alcohol use hurts athletic performance 5.0
Athlete has no desire to experience the effects of alcohol 2.3
Alcohol use is against coach's rules 2.0
Athlete is afraid of getting caught 1.7

When analyzing the univariate ANOVAs accounting for the six POMS subscales a Bonferonni adjustment was conducted, making the level of significance .01. One of the POMS subscales was significant, anger, f(1,296) = 8.14, p [less than] .004. The mean score for alcohol users on anger (M = 17.7) were all higher than those for nonusers on anger (M = -14.7). A significant main effect for gender was not found (see Table 4).

A 2 x 2 (behavior x gender) MANOVA was also conducted to distinguish significant differences between alcohol users and nonusers on the stress questions. The results of the MANOVA indicated no significant behavior x gender interaction effect. Therefore, overall multivariate main effects for behavior and gender on the stress questions were examined. Significant overall multivariate main effects were found for both behavior, Wilks lambda = 3.10, p [less than] .001, and gender, Wilks lambda = 4.04, p [less than] .001, on the stress questions.

Table 3

Alcohol Use by Athletes during Competitive Season (N = 300)

Athlete Alcohol Use Frequency Percentage

0 times 214 71.3
1-2 times 58 19.3
3-4 times 16 5.3
5-6 times 5 1.7
7 or more times 7 2.3

In regards to the univariate ANOVAs conducted on the stress questions, a Bonferonni adjustment determined the level of significance to be .01. A significant behavior main effect f = (1,296) = 6080, p [less than] .009, was found on the stress question concerning the athletes' anxieties about receiving a scholarship to college. The mean score (M = 3.91) for nonusers was significantly higher than the mean score (M = 3.50) for users.

A significant gender main effect f = (1,296) = 8.59, p [less than] .003, was found on the stress question concerning the pressure athletes feel to win. The mean score (M = 4.06) for the males was higher than the mean score (M = 3.74) for females (see Table 5).

A separate ANOVA was used to distinguish significant differences between users and nonusers on the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory. No significant differences were found on the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (see Table 6).

Discussion

The research literature regarding high school athletes and alcohol has focused mainly on determining the extent to which high school athletes use alcohol (Brown & Finn, 1982; Carr et al., 1990). The results of the present investigation confirm alcohol was used by high school athletes to varying degrees. The purpose of this study was not to confirm the extent to which high school athletes use alcohol, but to identify [TABULAR DATA FOR TABLE 4 OMITTED] whether specific psychological factors were associated with athletes who use alcohol. The specific psychological factors examined were tension-anxiety, depression, anger, vigor, fatigue, confusion, and self-esteem.

Anger was the one factor in which statistically significant differences were found between athletes who use alcohol and athletes who do not use alcohol. The mean score on anger was higher for those athletes who reported using alcohol than for those athletes who did not report using alcohol. These findings were consistent with Evans, Weinberg, and Jackson's (1992) study involving collegiate athletes. Evans, Weinberg, [TABULAR DATA FOR TABLE 5 OMITTED] and Jackson (1992) suggest the need of further inquiry into the symbiotic relationship of anger, athletic participation, and alcohol use.

The use of physical aggression by athletes has been encouraged during sport situations and discouraged during nonsport situations (Heyman, 1990). Heyman (1990) discussed how some athletes have difficulty controlling physically aggressive behaviors in nonsport situations when these behaviors have been reinforced during sport situations. Often, athletes have blamed displays of physically aggressive behavior on alcohol use (Heyman, 1990). The psychological connection between anger and aggression may warrant further inquiry into the relationship of these psychological factors and alcohol use by high school athletes.

Several research articles (McGuire, 1990; Roberts-Wilbur, Wilbur, & Morris, 1987), have suggested an association exists between athletes' self-esteem and alcohol and drug use. They contend athletes use alcohol in an attempt to cope with threats to self-esteem resulting from the athletic environment. The results of the present investigation did not find self-esteem to be associated with alcohol use by high school athletes. Although this finding is inconsistent with earlier research (McGuire, 1990; Roberts-Wilbur et al., 1987) it is particularly relevant to current literature on alcohol use by adolescents. Past research (Kovach & Glickman, 1986; Letteri & Ludford, 1981) has suggested self-esteem is neither associated nor related with adolescent alcohol use. Further research is needed to confirm whether self-esteem is unrelated to alcohol use by high school athletes.

Table 6

Means and Standard Deviations for Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (N = -300)

Groups M SD

Users 6.70 20.7
(N = -164)

Non-users 68.7 22.3
(N = -136)

Male 70.3 21.3
(N = -148)

Female 65.3 21.2
(N = -152)

Male users 69.3 19.8
(N = -83)

Male non-users 71.6 23.2
(N = -65)

Female users 64.7 21.4
(N = -81)

Female non-users 66.0 21.2
(N = -71)

Although self-esteem was found to be unrelated to alcohol use by high school athletes, an interesting comparison can be made between the findings of the present investigation and the findings of Evans, Weinberg, and Jackson (1992). Evans et al., (1992) investigation found males to have higher self-esteem scores than females, a finding consistent with the present investigation. The research literature (Duda, 1986; Evans et al., 1992) suggests this variation in self-esteem scores may result from a role conflict between femininity and athletic prowess. This conflict has resulted from past perceptions of gender role conflicts and athletic participation.

The present investigation also attempted to identify whether certain stressors were associated with alcohol use by high school athletes. The results from the demographic and academic questionnaire revealed significant differences for the question regarding the athletes' anxieties concerning receiving a scholarship to college. Athletes who dian athletes who used alcohol. A possible explanation for this finding may be non-alcohol using athletes perceive alcohol as an obstacle in obtaining a scholarship to colleges. Whereas athletes may use alcohol in an attempt to cope with the anxieties associated with obtaining scholarships. However, it must be understood individual athletes will react differently to the same type of stressor.

Significant differences were found in the comparison of male and females athletes regarding the question "how much pressure do you feel to win." The male athletes felt significantly greater pressure to win than female athletes. Duda (1986) discussed how past society has stereotyped the roles female athletes were expected to model. Unfortunately, past society has recognized the feminine image as more important than competitive excellence (Duda, 1986). This may lend support to the findings of current study regarding pressure to win among high school athletes.

There is a substantial amount of literature regarding the reasons why high school students use or do not use alcohol (Johnston & O'Malley, 1986). The results of this study found the reasons athletes gave for using alcohol to be consistent with the reasons high school non-athletes gave for using alcohol. The three primary reasons high school athletes and non-athletes reported for using alcohol were to "have a good time with friends," to "celebrate," and to "make one feel good."

The peer cluster theory (Oetting & Beauvais, 1986) could possibly lend support in explaining this consistency of reasons given for alcohol use by both high school athletes and non-athletes. The peer cluster theory maintains the influence of the peer cluster to which one belongs will essentially determine one's motive for participating in certain legal and illegal behaviors. During high school, peer clusters generally consist of both athletes and non-athletes. This diversity in peer clusters may explain the similarity in reasons for alcohol use by both athletes and non-athletes.

Alcohol education and prevention programs for high school athletes have focused primarily on the detriments of using alcohol. These programs have virtually ignored the many psychological constituents that can lead to alcohol use by high school athletes. This study identified anger, pressure to win, and anxiety to receive a college scholarship as factors related to alcohol use by high school athletes. Alcohol prevention and education programs designed for high school athletes may become more effective by teaching the athlete to understand and cope with the anger and various pressures resulting from athletic participation.

This preliminary investigation only began to address the issue of identifying psychological factors associated with alcohol use by high school athletes. More studies need to be performed to help provide a better understanding of the psychological factors associated with high school athletes' uses of alcohol. Future studies may target the role anger and aggression may play in alcohol use among high school athletes. Studies could attempt to identify to what extent (if any) athletes use alcohol in attempt to lessen anxieties and pressures associated with obtaining a scholarship to college. Researchers may investigate the effectiveness of alcohol prevention programs for high school athletes which focus on teaching athletes how to identify and cope with the symptoms of psychological factors which may lead to alcohol use.

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