Intellectual achievement responsibility of junior soccer players.

Bar-Eli, Michael

Professional sport is widely believed to be an effective means for upward mobility for individuals of disadvantaged socioeconomic and ethnic origin. Blalock (1967) and Edwards (1973) explain this popular belief by the lack of an inherent connection between athletic ability and educational credentials, with performance in sport measured by universalistic, rigid and visible criteria. Despite the fact that research has shown minorities to be overwhelmingly overrepresented in professional sports (Castine & Roberts, 1974; Edwards, 1973; Sage, 1979), several studies cast doubt on this belief (Ball, 1976; Dubois, 1980; Haerle, 1975a,b; Houlston, 1982; McPherson, 1980; Mihovilovic, 1968).

In Israel, the Jewish population is commonly distinguished into Jews of European or American origin ("Ashkenazim") and Jews of Asian or African origin ("Sephardim"). These two ethnic groups are roughly equal in size. However, "Ashkenazim" usually hold higher positions on all indicators of status and enjoy favorable opportunities for achievement, in comparison to "Sephardim" (Eisenstadt, 1967; Rosenstein, 1981; Semyonov & Tyree, 1981; Smooha, 1978).

The most popular and established professional sport in Israel in soccer. It offers relatively high income and prestige and far greater career opportunities than other sports. Studies on Israeli professional soccer (Semyonov, 1984, 1986; Semyonov & Farbstein, 1989; Semyonov & Yuchtman-Yaar, 1981; Yuchtman-Yaar & Semyonov, 1979) indicate that soccer is perceived as an alternative route of mobility with individuals of disadvantaged socioeconomic and ethnic origin overrepresented in the various soccer leagues. However, Semyonov and Yuchtman-Yaar (1981) found that the preference for a career in soccer is associated with both low levels of educational achievement and modest goals, regardless of family background. Thus, it is not only "cultural predisposition" which makes professional soccer more attractive for junior players of lower ethnic groups, but also the greater difficulties that youngsters of such origin encounter in the educational system.

Semyonov (1984, 1986) found that educational level is a most significant determinant of post-retirement occupational attainment together with ethnicity, and that occupational mobility of retired athletes is affected to a greater extent by education and ethnicity than by sport career variables. Thus, a professional career in sport does not intervene between background variables and later occupational attainment. These findings cast further doubt on sport serving as an effective vehicle for upward mobility for disadvantaged groups.

In these studies, education was investigated on the sociological level. For example, two variables were selected by Semyonov and Yuchtman-Yaar (1981) to represent subjects' educational goals and status: Educational expectations were measured by subjects' plans for further education, and educational attainment was measured by subjects' scholastic achievements. However, no attempt was made to investigate psychological aspects relevant to education of junior, senior or retired soccer players. It is the purpose of the present investigation to start exploring this population on the psychological level, with regard to the educational factor. In this respect, perceptions of control are highly relevant.

Rotter (1954, 1966, 1975) maintains that a belief in internal control exists if a person perceives events as being contingent upon his/her own behavior or his/her own relatively permanent characteristics. When a reinforcement is perceived by a person as following some action of his/her own but not being entirely contingent upon his/her own action, then it is typically perceived as the result of luck, chance, fate, as under the Control of powerful others or as unpredictable; in such case, a belief in external control exists (see also Lefcourt, 1976; Phares, 1976). Perceptions of control may substantially contribute to explain exercise and sport behavior (Biddle, 1989). It should be noted, however, that locus of control is a multidimensional Construct (McCready & Long, 1985; Palenzuela, 1988; Rotter, 1975). Therefore, one should specify variables such as the population in which perception of control is measured and the situation to which it refers.

Within the academic field, children's locus of control has been traditionally measured by the intellectual achievement responsibility (IAR)-scale (Crandall, Katkovsky & Crandall, 1965; Crandall, Katkovsky & Preston, 1962; Katkovsky, Crandall & Good, 1967). An internal orientation is viewed as more desirable than an external one, because "internals" avail themselves of information more than "externals", make better use of received information, and are more attentive to cues that help them resolve uncertainties (Lefcourt & Wine, 1969; Phares, 1968; Seeman & Evans, 1962). IAR was investigated in several educational settings (Chance, 1965; Crandall et al., 1965; Crandall et al., 1962; DeCharmes, 1972; Duby, 1980; Katkovsky et at., 1967; Kifer, 1973; Lessing, 1969; Reimainis, 1971; Tenenbaum, 1988). Results indicate that internal IAR is preferable to external IAR in the academic domain (Tenenbaum, 1988), probably because an individual's adaptive achievement pattern is strongly associated with mastery orientation (Dweck, 1986). In pediatric sport psychology (Feltz & Ewing, 1987; Gould, 1982; Gould & Weiss, 1987; Weiss & Gould, 1986), research on children's locus of control and intellectual achievement responsibility is still lacking. However, it seems beneficial to use the locus of control contructs within the academic field (IAR-scale) to investigate soccer players on the psychological level, with regard to education.

As mentioned before, in the long run education substantially effects later attainment. The trade-off between education and career in sport is detrimental for most Israeli soccer players, because they do not overcome disadvantages associated with educational factors (Semyonov, 1984, 1986). It is particularly interesting to explore how early in a player's career does this trade-off take place. Junior Israeli soccer players encounter educational difficulties already at the age of 14 to 18 (Semyonov & Yuchtman-Yaar, 1981). This is, however, not the earliest phase in their competitive career. In Israel youngsters typically enter soccer approximately at the age of 6. Until the age of 10, they usually train for one hour twice a week, within the framework of so-called "soccer schools". Children do not receive their education in these "soccer schools", which are also not really competitive. At the age of 10, youngsters start to experience the pressures of competition. They enter a football club, in which the intensiveness of training substantially increases. Here, young players usually train for about 1.5 hours, three times a week, including eventual closed training camps and sometimes even travel abroad. In addition, they must take part in regular league and cup matches, at least once a week. At the age of 14, the junior player starts the next phase of his career - four longer training sessions a week, a more intensive competitive program, etc. When he is drafted to the army at the age of 18, he is officially considered "senior." The previous sociological findings relate to the second phase of the competitive-professional career of a young soccer player in Israel (Semyonov & Yuchtman-Yaar, 1981). No research was conducted on earlier phases of soccer career, not to mention psychological variables. The phase between 6 and 10 may be considered as of a preparatory nature, not really competitive. The first competitive phase in a professional Israeli soccer player's career is typically the one between the ages of 10 to 14. In this investigation we will examine whether youngsters in this phase of their soccer career already suffer from educational disadvantages in comparison to children from equal age groups, ethnic origin, and socioeconomic status. However, we will focus our attention on the psychological side of the problem, using the locus of control construct within the academic field, operationalized through the IAR-scale.

Method

Design

Two independent variables were used in this investigation. In the first one (labeled "activity"), children regularly playing soccer for a club were compared to children who are not regularly playing soccer for a club. In the second one (labeled "age"), children at the beginning of their career's first competitive phase (approximately age 10, 4th grade) were compared to children at the end of their career's first competitive phase (approximately age 14, 8th grade). The dependent variable consisted of locus of control within the academic field, operationalized through the IAR-scale.

It was necessary to control several variables, which are potentially associated with the variance of IAR-scores. First, IAR scores may be correlated with intelligence, especially for males (Chance, 1965; Crandall et al., 1962). Therefore, two intelligence dimensions were measured: word knowledge and abstract thinking, operationalized as "vocabulary" and "similarities" tests of the revised Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-R), both dimensions highly correlated with general intelligence (Anastasi, 1982; Rapaport, Gill & Schafer, 1970). Second, subjects were placed in the various groups after being sampled from the same population, defined in terms of their socioeconcmic status (SES).

Subjects

In this investigation, 120 subjects were included. Sixty subjects, who were regularly playing soccer for a club, were sampled from two age groups: 30 children at the age of approximately 10 (4th grade) and 30 children at the age of approximately 14 (8th grade). Sixty subjects, who were not regularly playing soccer for a club, were also sampled from the same age groups (grades), 30 children from each. All subjects were males, because no regular female soccer players are available in Israel for these age groups. Non-soccer players were selected from the same urban neighborhoods as the regular soccer players, in order to equalize population characteristics in terms of SES.

Instrumentation

In this investigation, the later version of the IAR questionnaire was used (Crandall et al., 1965). This questionnaire is aimed at assessing students' beliefs in reinforcement responsibility exclusively in academic situations. The IAR questionnaire limits the sources of external control to those persons who most often come into direct contact with the student--his/her parents, teachers, and peers. The scale contains 34 items divided equally into positive (I+) and negative (I-) events. Each item contains two forced-choice alternatives, one internal and one external. A student's I+ score is the sum of all positive events for which the subject assumes credit, and the I- score is the sum of all negative events for which blame is assumed. The total IAR score is the sum of the I+ and I- scales. The IAR score ranges between 0 and 34. The higher the score, the more internal is the IAR. Reliability estimates reported in the literature (Crandall et al., 1965; Tenenbaum, 1988) are satisfactory.

The measurement of word knowledge and abstract thinking in order to control intelligence variance was performed with the "vocabulary" and "similarities" tests of the WISC-R, using the manual and norms developed for Israeli 6-16 year-old children (Lieblich, Ben-Shachar & Ninio, 1976). SES-data were collected, including child's place of birth, parents' origin and father's occupation.

Procedure

In order to choose the regular soccer players, the youth departments of two soccer clubs from the same city were contacted. Together with the management and coaches, the subjects for this investigation were specified. The younger players' age group consisted of children in the first month of the first season of the first competitive phase in the club, just a few weeks after graduating from a "soccer school". The older players' age group consisted of children, who started to play soccer in a "soccer school", continued in a club, being at the time of the investigation in the last month of the last season of the first competitive phase in the club, just before continuing to the second phase. After locating the regular soccer players, non-players at the same age groups were selected from schools at the same urban neighborhoods, with the assistance of the schools' managements.

After collecting SES data, "vocabulary" and "similarities" were administered orally and individually to all subjects. It is recommended to present the IAR questionnaire to children under the sixth grade orally, in order to ensure an appropriate understanding of items (Crandall et al., 1965). Therefore, the IAR questionnaire was administered orally and individually to the younger age groups, whereas the older children filled it out individually, but in writing.

Results

According to SES-data, 98.33% of the soccer players and 96.66% of the non-soccer players were born in Israel. However, most parents were of Asian or African origin (73.33% for soccer players, 68.33% for non-soccer players), and only a minority was of European or American origin (18.33% for soccer players, 18.33% for non-soccer players), or born in Israel (8.33% for soccer players, 13.33% for non-soccer players). No significant ||Chi~.sup.2~ values were obtained between the four groups or any combination of them. Thus, it may be concluded that the subjects were of the same ethnic origin. In addition, father's occupation was classified into two categories on the basis of a dichotomized occupational prestige scale previously used to indicate socioeconomic status in Israel (Semyonov & Yuchtman-Yaar, 1981; Yuchtman-Yaar & Semyonov, 1979), as follows: prestige groups 1-3 (manual and blue-collar occupations) and prestige groups 4-9 (nonmanual occupations, professions, and the like). Most fathers' occupations in our sample belonged to the low-prestige (1-3) category (70% for soccer players, 63.33% for non-soccer players, nonsignificant ||Chi~.sup.2~ value), whereas the minority belonged to the high-prestige (4-9) category, with a negligible number of temporarily unemployed or diseased fathers. It may be concluded, that all subjects in our investigation belonged to the same population in terms of SES (including ethnicity). Furthermore, this population typically characterizes Israeli soccer players (Semyonov, 1984, 1986; Semyonov & Farbstein, 1989; Semyoncv & Yuchtman-Yaar, 1981; Yuchtman-Yaar & Semyonov, 1979).

Concerning intelligence, two 2X2 between-subjects factorial analyses of variance were applied. In each, the following two factors were included: "activity" (regular soccer players vs. nonplayers) and "age" (4th vs. 8th grade). In the first ANOVA, the dependent variable consisted of "vocabulary" scores, and in the second ANOVA, the dependent variable consisted of "similarities" scores. The analysis revealed neither significant main effects nor significant interactions, with quite homogeneous scores for both "vocabulary" (M=8.76, SD=2.53) and "similarities" (M=9.98, SD=2.21) across all 120 subjects. It may be concluded that the four groups in our investigation (younger and older players and non-players) are quite homogeneous in terms of intellectual capabilities such as word knowledge and abstract thinking.

Table 1 presents the means and standard deviations of total IAR scores, as well TABULAR DATA OMITTED as I- and I+ scores separately, with regard to the four groups included in this investigation.

The IAR scores (total, I-, I+, separately) were analyzed, each through a 2X2 between-subjects factorial analysis of variance. In each of these ANOVAs, the following two factors were included: "activity" (regular soccer players vs. nonplayers) and "age" (4th vs. 8th grade).

In the first ANOVA, the dependent variable consisted of total IAR scores. The analysis revealed a highly significant main effect of "age" |F(1,116) = 13.61; P = .001~ and a main effect of "activity", which was dose to significance |F(1,116): 3.38; P = .067~. The interaction was not significant. The main effect of "age" resulted from a substantial difference between the 8th and 4th grade (M = 27.60, SD = 3.27 vs. M = 24.90, SD = 4.70). The weak main effect of "activity" resulted from a smaller difference between non-players and regular soccer players (M = 26.92, SD = 4.07 vs. M = 25.58, SD = 4.37).

In the second ANOVA, the dependent variable consisted of I-scores. The analysis revealed a significant main effect of "age "|F(1,116): 11.45; p = .001~ and a main effect of "activity," which was close to significance |F(1,116) = 2.91; p = .088~. The interaction was not significant. The main effect of "age" resulted from a substantial difference between the 8th and 4th grade (M = 13.55, SD = 2.07 vs. M = 11.88, SD = 3.24). The weak main effect of "activity" resulted from a smaller difference between non-players and regular soccer players (M = 13.13, SD = 2.56 vs. M = 12.30, SD = 3.04).

ln the third ANOVA, the dependent variable consisted of I+ scores. The analysis revealed a significant main effect of "age" |F(1,116) = 5.70; P = .015~ and a non-significant main effect of "activity" |F(1,116) = 1.38, N.S.~. The interaction was not significant. The main effect of "age" resulted from a substantial difference between the 8th and 4th grade (M = 14.05, SD = 2.16 vs. M = 13.02, SD = 2.57). Regarding the "activity" factor, a very small difference existed between non-players and regular soccer players (M = 13.78, SD = 2.44 vs. M = 13.28, SD = 2.39).

It is evident that total IAR, I- and I+ scores are generally higher for non-soccer players and for the older age group. Accordingly, total IAR scores substantially increase with age, with 8th graders higher than 4th graders. This tendency is particularly strong for regular soccer players, whose scores significantly increase from M = 23.90, SD = 4.80 to M = 27.26, SD = 3.14 with age |F(1,116) = 10.55; P = .001~. Non-soccer players' total IAR scores also increase with age, from M = 25.90, SD = 4.45 to M = 27.94, SD = 3.42 |F(1,116) = 3.88; P = .050~. I- scores increase significantly with age for regular soccer players, from M = 11.27, SD = 3.48 to M = 13.33, SD = 2.12 |F(1,116) = 8.79; P = .005~, and almost significantly for non-soccer players, from M = 12.50, SD = 2.90 to M = 13.77, SD = 2.03 |F(1,116) = 3.33; P = .069~. I+ scores increase significantly with age for regular soccer players, from M = 12.63, SD = 2.36 to M = 13.93, SD = 2.27 |F(1,116) = 4.52; P = .034~, but not significantly for non-soccer players, from M = 13.40, SD = 2.75 to M = 14.17, SD = 2.07 |F(1,116) = 1.58; N.S.~.

Discussion

In the present investigation, an attempt was made to study junior soccer players on the psychological level, with regard to the educational factor, so crucial to their future in Israeli society. For this purpose, the locus of control construct within the academic field was chosen, operationalized through the IAR-scale. The pattern of results regarding total IAR, I- and I+ is very consistent: the older children are on the average more internal than the younger ones on all three variables. Across ages, non-players are on the average more internal than regular soccer players. It should be noted that in comparison to I+ scores, I- scores produce stronger effects, although in a similar pattern.

Early developmental research on locus of control indicated that children usually become more internal and less external in their perceptions of control with age (Crandall et al., 1965; Gruen & Ottinger, 1969; Nowicki & Strickland, 1973; Penk, 1969; Sharan, 1979). In this respect, the results in this investigation are in accordance with previous findings. More interesting, however, are the differences between the activity groups: Regular soccer players, with lower internality compared to non-players, seem to be disadvantaged in the academic domain from the very beginning of their career, if we agree with the argument that an internal orientation is academically preferable to an external one (Lefcourt & Wine, 1969; Phares, 1968; Seeman & Evans, 1962). As was noted previously, several sociological investigations indicated strong disadvantages associated with factors such as education among Israeli soccer players, compared to other segments of Israeli society (Semyonov, 1984, 1986; Semyonov & Yuchtman-Yaar, 1981; Yuchtman-Yaar & Semyonov, 1979). The sociological findings are supported on the psychological level by the present results, because of the positive relationship between students' academic achievements and internal locus of control operationalized through IAR (Tenenbaum, 1988). However, soccer players from additional age groups should be investigated in the future in order to complete the picture.

Particularly interesting are the lowest internality values observed within the younger group of soccer players. Children of the 4th grade, just entering a soccer club, seem to have a personal history substantially richer with extracurricular activities, especially soccer (e.g., in "soccer schools"). Moreover, a professional career in soccer is more likely to be pursued by youths handicapped with regard to education; that is, the choice of soccer as a professional career is a priori more attractive to youths whose educational achievements and aspirations are relatively low (Semyonov & Yuchtman-Yaar, 1981). Thus, extracurricular activities such as soccer often take place at the expense of curricular activities necessary for educational achievements, which in turn are crucial for future occupational mobility. These tendencies remain quite constant with increasing age. However, further research is needed to test this explanation.

Sports performance is positively related to psychological constructs such as mastery orientation (Dweck, 1986), serf-efficacy (Bandura, 1977, 1982, 1986), self-confidence (Feltz, 1988; Griffin & Keogh, 1982; Vealey, 1986) and perceived competence or ability (Harter, 1978; Nicholls, 1984). Each of these constructs is linked with a certain amount of perceived internal control of one's actions (Biddle, 1989; Harter & Connell, 1982; Stipek & Weisz, 1981; Wang, 1983). However, an athlete who is high on these variables with regard to sports performance, may or may not feel the same way about academic performance. Future research should clarify the relationships between these constructs with regard to various domains of performance (i.e., academic, athletic, etc.). It may be hypothesized, for example, that the trade-off between educational and athletic success consistently demonstrated in Israeli soccer (Semyonov, 1984, 1986; Semyonov & Yuchtman-Yaar, 1981; Yuchtman-Yaar & Semyonov, 1979) will be reflected through negative correlations between perceptions of control (as well as mastery, self-efficacy, self-confidence and competence/ability) related to academic vs. athletic performance.

In future research, special attention should be given to the fact that in our study, the effects obtained for I- are somewhat stronger than the effects obtained for I+, with similar pattern of results for both variables. This finding may be associated with the influence of teacher's and/or coach's behavior on the psychological development of children. Empirical research conducted in academic classrooms and/or athletic field settings and reported in the educational and sport science literature (Horn, 1985, 1987; Peterson, 1977; Smith, Smoll & Curtis, 1979; Smith, Zane, Smoll & Coppel, 1983; Smoll & Smith, 1984; Smoll, Smith, Curtis & Hunt, 1978; Solomon & Kendall, 1976) provides evidence that the behavior of the individual teacher or coach substantially affects attitudes, values and self-perceptions of young athletes. Among others, children's beliefs concerning their ability to control their performance are affected by adults' feedback in response to their performance.

Several authors (Brophy, 1983; Schunk, 1984; Weiner, 1979) applied and extended attribution theory to educational settings. On the basis of their findings it may be hypothesized, that teachers and/or coaches will tend to ascribe children's successes mainly to their own instructional capabilities, whereas children's failures will be attributed primarily to children's faults (e.g., to lack of ability or effort). Accordingly, teachers'/coaches' attributional feedback may primarily relate to negative events. As a result children may learn to make somewhat mere differential evaluations of negative events, such as in our case. Future research should focus on this point, also because very few researchers have thus far attempted to measure the attributional content in the feedback given by teachers or coaches in instructional situations (Horn, 1987). Meanwhile, adults in applied instructional situations should be advised not to perceive performance errors committed by children in achievement settings as negative events, but better to use them to facilitate children's psychosocial growth (Clifford, 1984).

Martens (1987) maintained that sport psychology should be advanced through various paradigm and investigation strategies. Accordingly, future research in our domain should use single case and longitudinal designs in order to explore aspects different from the ones revealed in the present cross-sectional study. Recommendations concerning the use of single case and longitudinal designs (Guba & Lincoln, 1981; Patton, 1980; Smith, 1988) might be applied taking into consideration the need to investigate psychological states and processes in different cultures (Ryff, 1987). In this way, the relationships between sociological and psychological constructs such as occupational mobility and various facets of perceived control could be fruitfully investigated in order to further explain athletes' behavior.

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