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  • 标题:The 2013 Quebec municipal elections: what is specific to Quebec?/Les elections municipales Quebecoises de 2013: quelle specificite quebecoise?
  • 作者:Chiasson, Guy ; Mevellec, Anne
  • 期刊名称:Canadian Journal of Urban Research
  • 印刷版ISSN:1188-3774
  • 出版年度:2014
  • 期号:December
  • 语种:English
  • 出版社:Institute of Urban Studies
  • 摘要:We would like to examine to what extent the Quebec municipal experience differs from the traditional Canadian municipal model. Let us focus first on the idea of a Canadian municipal model. The existence of such a model presupposes both an urbi aspect and an orbi aspect. On the one hand, the concept of a model implies that Canadian municipalities share a certain number of characteristics, beyond the local particularities and also beyond the authority of the provinces on which they depend. On the other hand, this model implies it has specific characteristics that clearly differentiate it from other forms of local government in other countries. On this point, several papers on the history and development of the Canadian municipal system stress that it diverged from both the French and British models, and was heavily influenced by the U.S. model following the arrival of the loyalists (Plunkett 1968; Tindal and Tindal 2009).

The 2013 Quebec municipal elections: what is specific to Quebec?/Les elections municipales Quebecoises de 2013: quelle specificite quebecoise?


Chiasson, Guy ; Mevellec, Anne


This special issue of the Canadian Journal of Urban Research focuses on the 2013 Quebec municipal elections through a compilation of articles dealing with several topics and standpoints. In view of these various articles, the elections give us the opportunity to reflect on an uncharted question in urban and political studies, namely the existence of a Quebec municipal model that differs from the general Canadian municipal model. Our objective in this introduction is to provide some points for reflection on the nature and particularities of municipal politics in Quebec.

We would like to examine to what extent the Quebec municipal experience differs from the traditional Canadian municipal model. Let us focus first on the idea of a Canadian municipal model. The existence of such a model presupposes both an urbi aspect and an orbi aspect. On the one hand, the concept of a model implies that Canadian municipalities share a certain number of characteristics, beyond the local particularities and also beyond the authority of the provinces on which they depend. On the other hand, this model implies it has specific characteristics that clearly differentiate it from other forms of local government in other countries. On this point, several papers on the history and development of the Canadian municipal system stress that it diverged from both the French and British models, and was heavily influenced by the U.S. model following the arrival of the loyalists (Plunkett 1968; Tindal and Tindal 2009).

While this Canadian model may not always be explicitly called out in the literature, certain characteristics are generally mentioned to differentiate the Canadian municipal framework. We grouped these characteristics into two main themes: "historical" provincial relations and the ambiguous forms of municipal politics.

Provincial relations

Municipalities are created by provincial governments. Municipalities have no constitutional recognition. They are historically the result of the provinces' objective of decentralization, to better organize public services. Legally, provinces may decide as they please on the number and nature of municipalities. In fact they have instituted several reforms (voluntary mergers, obligatory mergers, regionalism, etc.). However, they have usually maintained the British principle of an institutional distinction between rural and urban areas.

Following this historical genesis, municipalities' scope of power has been confined for a long time to implementing and maintaining basic infrastructure and other property services (water supply, sewers, snow removal, solid waste management, etc.), leaving the major social issues to the "senior" governments (Andrew 1999; Magnusson 2005). This narrow definition of the role of Canadian municipalities, following Dillon's Rule (1872), must be qualified, however, due to several reforms which also developed services for "citizens" (Letartre 2003).

Lastly, provincial relations concern municipal revenues, which are largely dependent on the property tax field. While there are differences among provinces, property tax wealth represents on average over 50% of municipal revenues (FCM 2006, 22).

Ambiguous forms of municipal politics

This heritage along with these provincial relations contributed to the development of a depoliticized view of Canadian municipalities. A technical view of municipalities came about due to their mere purpose as well as their traditional scope of power (Collin and Leveillee 2003). This apolitical attitude is therefore orthodox, stated both as a standard for municipal elected officials to respect, and as a fact by certain observers of the municipal scene (Bherer and Breux 2012; LeSage and McMillan 2010, 64). The result of this is in part the distancing of political markers found in other political scenes, such as political parties (Tindal andTindal 2009; Smith and Stewart 2009; Quesnel and Belley 1991; Graham, Philips, and Maslove 1998) or even statements of ideological views (Bherer and Breux 2012; Mevellec and Tremblay 2013).

Following this apolitical pretence, the Canadian municipal political staff, basically comprised of "independent" elected officials, is largely considered "amateur" (Mouritzen and Svara 2002). The Canadian municipal democracy would be of leading citizens where candidates get themselves elected based more on their local reputation than on their platform (Abeles 1989; Quesnel and Belley 1991). There is thus an overrepresentation of certain social groups (white males) as well as an underrepresentation of others: Canadian municipal councils average under 25% women (Tremblay and Mevellec 2013), but also very few visible minorities (Simard 2004) or young people. Far from professionalized (Mevellec 2012), municipal elected officials nevertheless have had solid stability during their mandates (Siegel, Kushner, and Stanwick 2001). A final Canadian characteristic is the low turnout rates for municipal elections. The data available, while fragmented, globally indicates averages around 40% (Quebec, Ontario, Alberta) and an equally high proportion of elections with no opposition, particularly in the smaller municipalities.

Lastly, the political-administrative organization of Canadian municipalities is distinguished by the mayor being elected by all citizens, implying a certain presidentialization of municipal politics. Added to this, voting is per district in most Canadian municipalities, to the detriment of at-large elections (Graham, Philips, and Maslove 1998). In terms of administrative organization, there are several models across Canada. However, Plunkett (1992) showed the general use of the CAO (Chief Administrative Officer) model at least in urban municipalities. Canadian municipalities are thus characterized by the juxtaposition of two legitimate leadership spheres: a political one personified by the mayor, and an administrative one personified by the CAO.

Several individuals (Graham, Philips, and Maslove 1998) consider this depoliticized model of municipalities mainly the result of urban reform movements occurring in Canadian cities in the first third of the twentieth century. These movements promoted municipal management, with support from the rational knowledge of experts and the creation of professional bureaucracy, while remaining exempt from the constraints of partisan politics (Dagenais 2000). Moreover, this model proliferated in the postwar period when the provincial and federal welfare states aimed to significantly increase their scope of power (Andrew 1999). It seems legitimate to ask if, given the contemporary context of major federal and provincial government restructuring, the "Canadian municipal model" is not also due for some major changes.

Municipal models that diverge from the Canadian model

In examining the particularities of municipal politics in Canadian provinces, Ontario and Alberta must be made part of the discussion.

In Ontario, since the Harris administration's Local Services Realignment in the late 1990s, Ontarian municipalities have been granted significant jurisdiction by the provincial government in the social services area: land ambulance services, public health, childcare, and even public housing. Ontarian municipalities now have more diversified powers as well as more imposing budgets than their counterparts in other provinces, as duly shown by Siegel (2009). In 2002, a new reform turned municipalities into a "responsible and accountable level of government" with ten new areas of powers.

Along the same lines, with the Municipal Government Act (2007), Alberta also became a new reference regarding the role of municipalities in intergovernmental relations. Since the mid-1990s, a reform of municipal powers has changed the views, eliminating the ultra vires-type legal logic which prevailed until then (LeSage and McMillan 2009). Since then, Albertan municipalities have been able to change the terms of discussion with the provincial government regarding the transfer of powers and the related financial modifications (LeSage and McMillan 2010).

While several provincial practices are changing, we believe however that it is particularly relevant in Quebec to question the sustainability of the traditional Canadian municipal model and its aforementioned characteristics.

A Quebec model undergoing politicization

We hypothesize that several recent tendencies in Quebec municipal politics challenge certain foundations of the traditional Canadian model, in both of the aforementioned categories (provincial relations and ambiguous forms of municipal politics).

Concerning provincial relations, in 2013 the Union of Quebec Municipalities (UMQ) published a white paper as well as their proposed Municipal Charter. These documents put forward a redefinition of the relations between the province and the municipalities. The main purpose of the Charter is to have the Quebec government recognize the municipality "as an autonomous political authority and grant it the jurisdiction, powers, resources and autonomy necessary to meet the local needs of its population" (1) (proposed Charter of Municipalities, section 1). This initial purpose is broken down into several more detailed proposals related to governance principles, municipal powers and Quebec-Municipal relations (UMQ 2013). The common thread in all of the proposals is the recognition of the municipalities as a level of government in its own right, partner to the province rather than subjected to it.

Concerning the forms of municipal politics that we have described as "ambiguous", there is clearly an abundance of initiatives, both in municipalities which are members of the Union of municipalities and in the Quebec government. One of the most distinguishing characteristics of the Quebec municipal model is the presence of municipal political parties (MPP). Except for the Vancouver region, Quebec cities are the only ones with official MPPs. This difference apparently became more pronounced over the years as the number of MPPs significantly increased and as they were established outside the larger cities. In 2013, 180 MPPs were authorized by the Chief Electoral Officer of Quebec. While existing provincial legislation favoring partisan organizations may explain this situation, much work is still needed to understand the effects of having these political organizations on the ground (Mevellec and Tremblay 2013). The fundamental issue here is not so much establishing if the traditional apolitical attitude is challenged by the presence of municipal political parties, as questioning the existence of several forms of political expression at the municipal level.

Still on the subject of the exercise of municipal politics, the Quebec government, perhaps more so than in other provinces, seems to want to play a major role in municipal democracy, by establishing several guidelines such as the salary levels for local elected officials (via the Act Respecting the Remuneration of Elected Municipal Officers), the training of local elected officials (via the Municipal Ethics and Good Conduct Act), as well as the increase in hats worn by local elected officials at different levels: boroughs, RCMs, Regional conferences of elected officers, etc. (Chiasson and Robitaille 2004). We believe that the Quebec government's involvement in defining the conditions for carrying out municipal mandates is potentially leading to professionalized local elected officials. In fact, a local elected official is no longer viewed as either a volunteer or an amateur, but rather as an individual who is remunerated and must have certain abilities to carry out a political mandate.

As we have seen, the traditional Canadian municipal model is being challenged in several provinces, mainly from the standpoint of recognizing municipalities as a level of government in its own right. We believe this process is occurring in Quebec, and furthermore is being supplemented by the current politicization of municipalities of different sizes. In this regard, we consider the 2013 elections as a window of opportunity to verify the hypothesis that Quebec municipal politics is deviating from the traditional Canadian model. Further to Andrew (1995), one could ask if the terms "hyper-fractionalized" and "quasi-subordination" still adequately describe Quebec municipalities.

The articles compiled in this issue examine, from different standpoints, the question of the Quebec municipal model and its current evolution. While not all papers focus on what is specific to the Quebec model, each contribution describes a particular facet of municipal politics in its current state in Quebec.

This issue is structured around two themes with three articles each. The first theme is political staff. Based heavily on electoral sociology, these articles aim to describe the Quebec municipal political elite using statistical data.

Anne Mevellec highlights several major characteristics which indicate the vitality of representative democracy in large and mid-sized cities. She covers electoral competitiveness, the role of political parties and the benefits of incumbency, in a 2005-2009-2013 comparative study. She questions if the 2013 elections indicate the specifics of their context, namely the disclosures at the Charbonneau Commission.

Manon Tremblay proposes an in-depth analysis of the eligibility criteria for women in Quebec municipal politics. Based on standpoints and hypotheses developed at other levels, she demonstrates some specifics of municipal politics, diverging both from common sense and certain theoretical explanations. She thus clarifies conditions which perpetuate, in 2013, a democracy of leading citizens dominated by men.

Lastly, Sandra Breux, Jerome Couture and Laurence Bherer investigate the connection between the existence of outgoing candidates and the turnout rate. Using a vast supply of literature, they test a series of hypotheses to explain this connection. Notably, the article shows that the connection between two characteristics of the Canadian municipal model (the benefits of incumbency and low voter turnout rates) is not as simple as one might think a priori.

The second theme put forward in this issue is the politicization of the municipal level. These authors preferred a monographic format.

Guy Chiasson, Mario Gauthier and Caroline Andrew review the emergence of a municipal political party in Gatineau and in particular its members' slow progress in politicizing development and urban planning issues during the 2009-2013 mandate. This article details the reality of municipal political parties in the context of a mid-sized city.

Serge Belley, Marc-Andre Lavigne and Louise Quesnel examine the 2013 campaign in Quebec City. They analyse how Regis Labeaume was able to establish himself via political leadership based on his ability to take action and use extra-political networks. He thus transformed the rules and arenas for electoral competition in the Quebec capital.

Lastly, Caroline Patsias and Sylvie Patsias study politicization via citizens, specifically in the Parc-Extension borough in the city of Montreal. The authors demonstrate how the 2013 election campaign was an opportunity to both politicize and depoliticize discussions and issues at this citizens' committee.

References

Abeles, M. 1989. Jours tranquilles en 89, ethnologie d'un departement francais. Paris: Odile Jacob.

Andrew, C. 1995. Provincial-municipal relations; or hyper-fractionalized quasi-subordinations revisited. In Canadian metropolitics, ed. James Lightbody, 137-160. Toronto: Copp Clark.

Andrew, C. 1999. Les metropoles canadiennes. In Dislocation et permanence. L'invention du Canada au quotidien, ed. Caroline Andrew, 61-79. Ottawa: Presses de l'Universite d'Ottawa.

Bherer, L., and S. Breux. 2012. L'apolitisme municipal. Bulletin d'Histoire Politique 21 (1): 170-84.

Chiasson, G., and M. Robitaille. 2004. Les conferences regionales des elus ou la democratie revisitee. http://www4.uqo.ca/observer/DevLocal/ Gouvernance/CRE.htm.

Collin, J.-R, and J. Leveillee. 2003. L'organisation municipale au Canada. Villes Regions Monde, September. http://www.vrm.ca/documents/ICPS_FR.pdf.

Dagenais, M. 2000. Des pouvoirs et des hommes. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press.

Federation of Canadian Municipalities. 2006. Building Prosperity from the Ground Up: Restoring Municipal Fiscal Balance. Ottawa: Federation of Canadian Municipalities, June. http://www.fcm.ca/Documents/reports/ Building_Prosperity_from_the_Ground_Up_Restoring_Muncipal_Fiscal_Balance_EN.pdf.

Graham, K., S.D. Philips, and A. Maslove. 1998. Urban governance in Canada. Toronto: Harcourt Brace and Company.

LeSage, E.C., and M.L. McMillan. 2010. Alberta municipal system overview update, ed. M.L. McMillan. Edmonton: University of Alberta. Western Centre for Economic Research.

LeSage, E.C., and M.L. McMillan. 2009. Alberta. In Foundations of governance. Municipal government in Canada's provinces, eds. A. Sancton and R. Young, 384-452. Toronto: IPAC-UTP.

Letarte, G. 2003. Les municipalites et le developpement social: un cas type : les municipalites de la region de la Capitale Nationale. Rimouski: GRIDEQ.

Magnusson, W. 2005. Protecting the Right of Local Self-Government. Canadian Journal of Political Science/Revue canadienne de science politique, 38 (4): 897-922.

Mevellec, A. 2012. Municipal councillors in large and medium size Quebec cities: What can they tell us about local democracy? Pittsburgh (PEN), April 18-23, 2012, Urban Affairs Association.

Mevellec, A., and M. Tremblay. 2013. Les partis politiques municipaux : la << Westminsterisation >> des villes du Quebec?, Recherches sociographiques, LIV(2): 325-347.

Mouritzen, P.E., and J.H. Svara. 2002. Leadership at the apex: Politicians and administrators in western local governments. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.

Plunkett, T.J. 1968. Urban Canada and Its Government: A Study of Municipal Organization. Toronto: Macmillan.

Plunkett, T.J. 1992. City Management in Canada: The Role of the Chief Administrative Officer. Toronto: Institute of Public Administration of Canada.

Quesnel, L., and S. Belley. 1991. Partis politiques municipaux, une etude de sociologie electorale. Montreal: Editions Agence d'Arc.

Siegel, D. 2009. Ontario. In Foundations of Governance. Municipal government in Canada's provinces, eds. A. Sancton and R. Young, 20-69. Toronto: IPAC-UTP.

Siegel, D., J. Kushner, and H. Stanwick. 2001. Canadian mayors: a profile and determinants of electoral success. Canadian Journal of Urban Research 10 (1): 5-22.

Simard, C. 2004. Qui nous gouverne au municipal : Reproduction ou renouvellement? Politique et Societes 23 (2-3): 135-158.

Smith, R, and K. Stewart. 2009. British Columbia. In Foundations of governance. Municipal government in Canada's provinces, eds. A. Sancton and R. Young, 282-313. Toronto: IPAC-UTP.

Tindal, C.R., and S. Nobes Tindal. 2009. Local Government in Canada. Toronto: Nelson.

Tremblay, M., and A. Mevellec. 2013. City Hall: Truly more accessible to women than the legislature? In Continuing Presence: Women, Elections, and Political Representation in Canada, eds. J. Arscott, L. Trimble, and M. Tremblay, 19-35. UBC Press.

Union des municipalites du Quebec. 2013. Livre blanc. Montreal: Union des municipalites du Quebec.

Notes

(1) [Translation by UMQ]

Ce numero special de la Revue canadienne d'etudes urbaines reunit un ensemble de textes qui abordent, sous differents themes et approches, les elections municipales de 2013 au Quebec. A la lumiere de ces differents textes, ce scrutin nous donne l'occasion de reflechir sur un impense des etudes urbaines et politiques, c'est-a-dire l'existence d'un modele municipal quebecois qui se distinguerait du modele canadien municipal general. Notre ambition, dans cette introduction, est de proposer une reflexion sur la nature de la politique municipale au Quebec et sur ses particularites.

Nous souhaitons examiner dans quelle mesure l'experience municipale quebecoise se demarque du modele municipal canadien traditionnel. Revenons d'abord sur l'idee d'un modele municipal canadien. L'existence d'un tel modele suppose tout a la fois une dimension urbi et une dimension orbi. D'une part, l'idee de modele implique que les municipalites canadiennes partagent un certain nombre de caracteristiques, par dela les specificites locales et aussi par dela l'autorite des provinces dont elles dependent. D'autre part, ce modele suppose qu'il comporte une certaine specificite lui permettant de se distinguer clairement d'autres formes de gouvernement local dans d'autres pays. Sur ce point, plusieurs travaux sur l'histoire et le developpement du systeme municipal canadien insistent sur le fait que ce dernier s'est distance, a la fois du modele francais et du modele britannique et a ete fortement influence par le modele etats-unien suite a l'arrivee des loyalistes (Plunkett 1968; Tindal et Tindal 2009).

Si ce modele canadien n'est pas toujours nomme explicitement dans la litterature, certaines caracteristiques sont generalement evoquees pour definir la specificite du cadre municipal canadien. Nous avons regroupe ces caracteristiques sous deux principaux themes: les relations << historiques >> avec les provinces et les formes ambigues de la politique municipale.

Les relations avec les provinces

Les municipalites sont des creatures des gouvernements provinciaux. Elles ne disposent d'aucune reconnaissance constitutionnelle. Elles sont historiquement issues d'une volonte de decentralisation des provinces, souhaitant une meilleure organisation des services publics. Du point de vue legal, les provinces peuvent decider a leur guise du nombre et de la forme des municipalites. Elles ont effectivement initie des reformes variees (fusions volontaires, fusions obligatoires, regionalisme, etc.). Neanmoins le principe britannique d'une distinction institutionnelle entre les espaces ruraux et les espaces urbains a le plus souvent ete conserve.

En lien avec cette genese historique, les municipalites sont longtemps restees cantonnees dans un champ d'action limite a la mise en place et a l'entretien des infrastructures de base et autres services a la propriete (aqueduc, egouts, deneigement, gestion des matieres residuelles, etc.) laissant le soin aux gouvernements << superieurs >> de s'occuper des grandes questions de societe (Andrew 1999; Magnusson 2005). Cette definition etroite du role des municipalites canadiennes dans la logique du Dillon's Rule (1872) doit cependant etre nuancee suite a plusieurs reformes developpant aussi les services a la << personne >> (Letartre 2003).

Finalement, les relations avec les provinces concernent les revenus des municipalites. Ceux-ci sont largement dependants du champ fiscal foncier. Si des differences existent entre provinces, la richesse fiscale fonciere represente en moyenne plus de 50% des revenus des municipalites (FCM 2006, 22).

Des formes ambigues de la politique municipale

L'ensemble de cet heritage et de ces relations avec les provinces a contribue a developper une conception depolitisee des municipalites canadiennes. Leur raison d'etre ainsi que leurs champs de competences traditionnelles ont eu comme effet de mettre de l'avant une conception technique de ces dernieres (Collin et Leveillee 2003). Cet apolitisme tient alors de doxa, enoncee a la fois comme une norme a respecter par les elus municipaux, et comme un etat de fait par certains observateurs de la scene municipale (Bherer et Breux 2012; LeSage et McMillan 2010, 64). Cela se traduit en partie par la mise a distance des marqueurs politiques que l'on trouve sur d'autres scenes pofitiques, comme les partis politiques (Tindal et Tindal 2009; Smith et Stewart 2009; Quesnel et Belley 1991; Graham, Philips, et Maslove 1998) ou encore l'enonciation de references ideologiques (Bherer et Breux 2012; Mevellec et Tremblay 2013).

En lien avec cet apolitisme de facade, le personnel politique municipal canadien, essentiellement constitue d'elus << independants >>, est largement considere comme << amateur >> (Mouritzen et Svara 2002). La democratie municipale canadienne en serait une de notables ou les candidats se font davantage elire sur la base de leur reputation locale que sur celle d'un programme (Abeles 1989; Quesnel et Belley 1991). Cela se traduit par une surrepresentation de certains groupes sociaux (hommes blancs) ainsi que la sous-representation d'autres : on compte en moyenne moins de 25% de femmes dans les conseils municipaux canadiens (Tremblay et Mevellec 2013), mais egalement tres peu de representants issus des minorites visibles (Simard 2004), ou de jeunes. Peu professionnalises (Mevellec 2012), les elus municipaux beneficient par contre d'une tres forte stabilite dans leurs mandats (Siegel, Kushner, et Stanwick 2001). Une derniere caracteristique canadienne reside dans les faibles taux de participations aux elections municipales. Les donnees disponibles, bien que parcellaires, indiquent toutes des moyennes autour de 40% (Quebec, Ontario, Alberta) et une proportion egalement elevee d'elections sans opposition, particulierement dans les petites municipalites.

Finalement, l'organisation politico-administrative des municipalites canadiennes est marquee par l'election du maire par l'ensemble des citoyens, impliquant une forme de presidentialisation de la politique municipale. Ceci s'accompagne de la diffusion d'un scrutin par district dans la majorite des municipalites canadiennes, au detriment des scrutins << at large >> (Graham, Philips, et Maslove 1998). Du cote de l'organisation administrative, il existe une variete de modeles a travers le Canada. Neanmoins, Plunkett (1992) a montre la generalisation du modele du CAO (Chief Administrative Officer) au moins dans les municipalites urbaines. Ce faisant, les municipalites canadiennes se caracterisent par la juxtaposition de deux leaderships legitimes: l'un politique incarne dans le maire, l'autre administratif incarne dans le CAO.

Pour plusieurs (Graham, Philips, et Maslove 1998) ce modele de la municipalite depolitisee est en bonne partie un heritage des mouvements de reformes urbaines qui ont touche les villes canadiennes dans le premier tiers du XXe siecle. Ces mouvements ont fait la promotion d'une gestion municipale s'appuyant sur le savoir rationnel des experts et la construction d'une bureaucratie professionnelle tout en etant liberee des contraintes de la politique partisane (Dagenais 2000). De surcroit, ce modele a prolifere dans la periode d'apres-guerre ou les Etats-providence provinciaux et federaux ont cherche a accroitre de facon significative leur champ d'intervention (Andrew 1999). Il semble legitime de se demander si dans le contexte contemporain marque par des restructurations importantes des Etats federaux et provinciaux le << modele municipal canadien >> n'est pas lui aussi soumis a des changements importants.

Des modeles municipaux qui s'emancipent du modele canadien

Quand on aborde la question de la particularite de la politique municipale dans les provinces canadiennes, les cas de l'Ontario et de l'Alberta s'imposent dans la discussion.

En Ontario, depuis le local services realignment du gouvernement Harris a la fin des annees 1990, les municipalites ontariennes se sont vues attribuees par le gouvernement provincial d'importantes responsabilites dans le secteur des services sociaux : les services ambulanciers terrestres, la sante publique, les services de garde ou encore le logement social. Les municipalites ontariennes possedent desormais un champ de competences plus diversifie ainsi que des budgets plus imposants que leurs consoeurs dans d'autres provinces comme l'a bien montre Siegel (2009). En 2002, une nouvelle reforme a fait des municipalites un << palier de gouvernement capable et responsable >> de dix nouvelles spheres de competences.

Parallelement, avec le Municipal Government Act (2007), l'Alberta s'est aussi imposee comme une nouvelle reference quant a la place des municipalites dans les relations intergouvemementales. Des le milieu des annees 1990, une reforme des pouvoirs municipaux en a change la conception, en supprimant la logique juridique de type ultra vires qui prevalait jusque la (LeSage et McMillan 2009). Depuis, les municipalites albertaines ont reussi a changer les termes de la discussion avec le gouvernement provincial, lorsqu'il s'agit d'evoquer les transferts de responsabilites et des modifications financieres qui les accompagnent (LeSage et McMillan 2010).

Si plusieurs pratiques provinciales changent, il nous semble neanmoins que le Quebec constitue un lieu privilegie pour interroger la perennite du modele municipal canadien traditionnel et de ses caracteristiques que nous avons presentees plus haut.

Un modele quebecois en cours de politisation

Nous partons de l'hypothese que plusieurs tendances recentes en politique municipale quebecoise remettent en question certains fondements du modele canadien traditionnel, et ce dans les deux categories de criteres mentionnees plus haut (les relations avec la Province ainsi que les formes ambigues de la politique municipale).

Concernant les relations avec la Province, l'Union des municipalites du Quebec a produit en 2013 un livre blanc ainsi que son projet de charte des municipalites. Ces documents proposent de refonder les relations qu'entretiennent la Province et les municipalites. L'objectif premier de la Charte est de faire reconnaitre par le gouvernement du Quebec la municipalite << comme une instance politique autonome et de lui conferer les competences, les pouvoirs, les ressources et l'autonomie necessaires afin de repondre, au plan local, aux besoins divers et evolutifs de sa population >> (Article 1 du projet de Charte des municipalites). De cet objectif initial decoulent plusieurs propositions plus precises, liees aux principes de gouvernance, aux competences municipales, ainsi qu'aux relations Quebec-municipalites (UMQ_2013).Toutes ont comme point commun la reconnaissance des municipalites comme un ordre de gouvernement a part entiere, partenaire de la province et non assujetti a cette derniere.

Concernant les formes que nous avons decrites comme << ambigues >> de la politique municipale, force est de constater le foisonnement des initiatives, a la fois dans les municipalites membres de l'Union des municipalites et du gouvernement du Quebec. L'une des distinctions les plus evidentes du modele municipal quebecois reside dans la presence des partis politiques municipaux (PPM). A l'exception de la region de Vancouver, les villes quebecoises sont les seules ou les PPM sont officiellement presents. Cette difference s'est apparemment accentuee au fil des ans alors que le nombre de PPM a considerablement augmente et que ceux-ci se sont implantes a l'exterieur des plus grandes villes. En 2013, 180 PPM etaient autorises par le directeur general des elections du Quebec. Si la presence d'une legislation provinciale favorable aux organisations partisanes peut expliquer cette situation, il reste encore beaucoup de travail pour comprendre les effets de la presence de ces organisations politiques sur le terrain (Mevellec et Tremblay 2013). Fondamentalement, la question est ici moins de savoir si l'apolitisme traditionnel est mis en cause par la presence des partis politiques municipaux, que de questionner l'existence de formes multiples d'expression du politique au niveau municipal.

Toujours en lien avec l'exercice de la politique municipale, l'Etat quebecois, peut-etre plus que dans les autres provinces, semble vouloir jouer un role important dans la democratie municipale, en fixant diverses balises telles que le niveau du salaire des elus locaux (via la Loi sur le traitement des elus locaux), la formation des elus locaux (via la Loi sur l'ethique et la deontologie en matiere municipale), ainsi que la multiplication des casquettes portees par les elus locaux a diverses echelles : arrondissement, MRC, Conferences regionales des elus, etc. (Chiasson et Robitaille 2004). Selon nous, ces differentes interventions de l'Etat quebecois dans la definition des conditions de l'exercice des mandats municipaux vont potentiellement dans le sens d'une professionnalisation des elus locaux. En effet, elles portent une conception de l'elu local qui n'est plus ni benevole ni amateur, mais remunere et dont un certain nombre de competences sont reconnues comme necessaires pour exercer leur mandat politique.

Comme on l'a vu, le modele canadien municipal traditionnel est questionne, dans plusieurs provinces, principalement sous l'angle de la reconnaissance des municipalites comme un ordre de gouvernement a part entiere. Selon nous, au Quebec, on retrouve cette dynamique, qui par ailleurs est completee par une politisation en marche des municipalites de differentes tailles. En cela, les elections de 2013 nous semblent une fenetre privilegiee pour verifier cette hypothese voulant que la politique municipale quebecoise s'eloigne du modele canadien traditionnel. On pourrait, a la suite d'Andrew (1995) se demander si les termes << hyper-fractionne >> et << quasi-subordonne >> qualifient toujours adequatement les municipalites quebecoises.

Les textes regroupes dans ce numero abordent sous differentes formes la question du modele municipal quebecois et ses dynamiques contemporaines. Bien que la question de la specificite du modele quebecois ne soit pas toujours centrale dans les contributions, chacune d'elles precise une facette particuliere de la politique municipale telle quelle se fait, aujourd'hui, au Quebec.

Ce numero est organise autour de deux themes reunissant chacun trois articles. Le premier theme est celui du personnel politique. Bien ancres dans une perspective de sociologie electorale, ces textes proposent de dresser le portrait des elites politiques municipales quebecoises, a partir de donnees statistiques.

Anne Mevellec en dresse quelques grandes caracteristiques qui nous informent sur la vitalite de la democratie representative dans les villes moyennes et grandes. Elle documente la competitivite des scrutins, le role des partis politiques et l'effet de la prime au sortant, dans une perspective comparee 2005-2009-2013. Elle interroge la specificite des elections de 2013 a la lumiere de leur contexte, c'est-a-dire celui des revelations de la Commission Charbonneau.

Manon Tremblay propose une analyse fine des conditions d'eligibilite des femmes en politique municipale quebecoise. En s'inspirant des approches et hypotheses developpees a d'autres echelons, elle demontre une certaine specificite de la politique municipale rompant tout a la fois avec le sens commun et certaines explications theoriques. Elle permet ainsi d'eclairer les conditions qui continuent, en 2013, de permettre une democratie de notables dominee par les hommes.

Finalement, Sandra Breux, Jerome Couture et Laurence Bherer interrogent le lien entre la presence de candidats sortants et le taux de participation. Alimentes par une riche litterature, ils testent une serie d'hypotheses pour expliquer ce lien. L'article permet notamment de voir que le lien entre deux dimensions caracteristiques du modele municipal canadien (la prime au sortant et la faiblesse des taux de participation electoraux) n'est pas aussi simple que l'on pourrait le penser a priori.

Le deuxieme theme mis de l'avant dans ce numero est celui de la politisation du palier municipal. Pour ce faire, les auteurs ont privilegie des approches monographiques.

Guy Chiasson, Mario Gauthier et Caroline Andrew reviennent sur lemergence d'un parti politique municipal a Gatineau et particulierement sur le lent travail de politisation des enjeux d'amenagement et d'urbanisme realise par ses membres lors du mandat 2009-2013. Cet article est l'occasion de documenter en detail la realite inter-scrutin des partis politiques municipaux dans le contexte d'une ville moyenne.

Serge Belley, Marc-Andre Lavigne et Louise Quesnel proposent quant a eux une reflexion sur la campagne de 2013 dans la ville de Quebec. Ils analysent la maniere dont Regis Labeaume a reussi a s'imposer grace a un leadership politique base sur sa capacite d'action et d'activation de reseaux extrapolitiques. Ce faisant, il a reussi a transformer les regles et les arenes de la competition electorale dans la capitale quebecoise.

Finalement, Caroline Patsias et Sylvie Patsias traitent de la politisation par le biais des citoyens, plus particulierement dans l'arrondissement de Parc Extension, dans la ville de Montreal. Les auteures montrent comment la campagne electorale de 2013 a ete l'occasion a la fois de politiser et de depolitiser les discussions et les enjeux dans ce comite de citoyens.

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Guy Chiasson

Departement des sciences sociales

Universite du Quebec en Outaouais

et

Anne Mevellec

Ecole d'etudes politiques/School of Political Studies

Universite d'Ottawa
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