Educator characteristics for sustainable student development.

Krishnaveni, R. ; Anitha, J.

Introduction

Change and Growth is inevitable in any sector. Change brings about alteration to existing set up and avoids stagnancy. It is so much pronounced in work life that the adage goes as, "Change is constant". Organizations experience change in terms of new laws, technological development, market changes for their products, increasing government laws and regulations, information access, changing work force etc. Some enterprises may enter into joint ventures, mergers and acquisitions and expansion that change the size and structure and some other may slim down or downsize for stability and survival. Breakthroughs in different fields of science and technology and increased global competition emphasize change in present businesses. Expectations from the employees and customers on the other hand accelerate change to produce value added products. It is very much essential for managers and employers to not only adapt to change but also initiate change, to be present in the circuits of the global race.

[ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]

However it is important to note that the rapidly changing and less predictable global system demands sustainability and meaning in essence of the change that has happened. Sustainable growth and change is what is the current need of the hour. Higher education is an important means or instrument in bringing about this sustainable change. According to Anne Sibbel (2009), the focus of education for global sustainability has been on encouraging consumers to modify patterns of resource consumption and waste management. However, she finds that there are some significant limitations to relying on consumer action. Future professionals, involved in managing resources or designing options from which consumers make choices, are in a much better position for influencing how social, cultural and environmental resources are used (Sibbel, 2009).

The institution of higher education is where a remarkable transformation is required as it holds significant responsibility for sustainability by virtue of its influence on society and academic freedom to explore ideas (Davies et al., 2003; International Association of Universities (IAU), 2006; Sherren, 2006).

The 2003 Convention on Sustainable Development in Prague signified that the higher education sector was not able to produce graduates with the skills and attitudes required to address the problem of sustainability (IAU, 2006). It emphasized that higher education sector has empowered the graduates but has not encouraged them to work for sustainability of the global system. The higher education sector is a complex sphere and it comprises students, academicians and administrators, and their diverse attitudes, skills, experiences I and knowledge, and programs of study which traditionally I transform students into graduates who assume responsibilities in I society. Hence arises the need for derivation of the curricula I from the needs of the society that it serves. As such, there are I many challenges facing higher education if it is to actualise its * potential for contributing to sustainability.

Challenges Faced by Higher Education to Manage Sustainability

The challenges of the higher education sector and the management education sector in particular comprises various factors including understanding the concept of sustainability, redesigning the curricula as per the need of the society and in order to develop graduate attributes of self-efficacy, capacity for effective advocacy and interdisciplinary collaboration, as well as raise awareness of social and moral responsibilities associated with professional practice (Sibbel, 2009).

A number of initiatives have emerged to stimulate change in the practices of business schools. A consulting paper by Gitsham (2011) enlists a number of associations and initiatives including Netlmpact in 1993 that covered management students concerned with doing social good and making money; the Aspen institute and the World Resources Institute partnered to create the Beyond Grey Pinstripes business school rankings in 1998; EABIS, The Academy of Business in Society in 2002; the Globally responsible Leadership Initiative (GRLI) in 2004; and the recently popular UN Principles for Responsible Management Education (PRME) where 60 business schools globally was convened by United Nations Secretary General Ban Ki-Moon, working with EFMD, AACSB, GMAC, EABIS, GRLI, Netlmpact, and the Aspen Institute in 2007. These initiatives and subsequent changes in business schools lead to 363 business schools from all over the world to become signatory to the UN Principles for Responsible Management Education. In spite of these changes, many business schools do not find the relevance of sustainable development for the management education curriculum.

One of the key stakeholders of business schools is the students for whom most of the schools would want to render development and enable them enjoy successful careers. This study was made to identify few characteristics of educators that will have remarkable and noteworthy impact on student development and significantly sustainable development. Teacher efficacy was one major factor identified, that emphasizes the educator's belief in oneself in bringing about a positive and desirable change in the student. In addition to this few more professional characteristics which have a direct impact on teacher efficacy were also identified. When these characteristics are nurtured and developed, teacher's sense of efficacy is found to significantly increase. The same was proved by validating that model developed based on this premises.

Teacher Efficacy for Sustainable Student Development

Tschannen-Moran and Woolfolk Hoy (2001) defined teacher efficacy as a teacher's 'judgment of his or her capabilities to bring about desired outcomes of student engagement and learning, even among those students who may be difficult or unmotivated'. Tschannen-Moran et al (1 998) also argued that teacher efficacy is actually a joint, simultaneous function of a teacher's analysis of the teaching task and his or her assessment of his or her personal teaching competence or skill. Ashton (1 984, 1985) defined teachers' sense of efficacy as 'their belief in their ability to have a positive effect on student learning'. Teacher efficacy is related to a range of variables, such as student achievement (Armor et al 1 976), student motivation (Midgely et al 1989), teachers' adoption of innovation (Berman et al 1977; Guskey 1 988; Smylie 1988), superintendents' ratings of teacher competence (Trentham et al 1 985), and teachers' classroom management strategies (Ashton and Webb 1 986).

Student learning is affected most directly by the hours they spend on appropriate tasks in classrooms. Teachers are the first line of defense against ignorance. We will never have the perfect curriculum or teaching strategy, but teachers who set high goals, who persist, who try another strategy when one approach is found wanting-in other words, teachers who have a high sense of efficacy and acton it-are more likely to have students who learn. So the question of how to support and not undermine teachers' sense of efficacy is critical. The basic management task for teachers is to achieve order and harmony by gaining and maintaining student cooperation in class activities. Without students' trust, respect, and cooperation, even the best materials and methods can fail (Woolfolk 2004).

Teacher efficacy beliefs influence teacher behaviors, which, in turn, influence student achievement within the classroom (Ross 1 994,1 998). That is, as teachers develop beliefs that certain actions lead to increased levels of student achievement throughout the school, these actions develop into group or school-wide normative behaviors. These group normative behaviors along with their concomitant rewards and sanctions, in turn, will penetrate each classroom influencing both teacher and student behavior. The ideal result is increased levels of student attainment throughout the school. The effects of positive feelings of efficacy have been studied with preservice, novice and inservice teachers at various school levels (elementary, middle and secondary) and in various contexts (urban, sub urban and rural) (Deemer and Kathleen 1993).

Tschannen-Moran and Hoy from the College of Education at the Ohio State University worked on a measure for teacher efficacy. Several possible formats for a new efficacy measure were explored, including a Likert-type scale similar to the Gibson and Dembo instrument and the expanded scale advocated by Bandura. In the end, they decided on a measure based on Bandura's scale, but with an expanded list of teacher capabilities. The new measure, named the Ohio State teacher efficacy scale (OSTES), was reasonably valid and reliable. With 24 items, it is of reasonable length and should prove to be a useful tool for researchers interested in exploring the construct of teacher efficacy (Tschannen-Moran and Hoy 2001). This instrument was adopted with few changes, to measure the teacher efficacy construct in this research, after validation through the pilot data. As this research is based on self perception of the educators on their characteristics, the personal teaching efficacy attributes were selected for the study.

Professional Characteristics that Influence Teacher Efficacy

Specific Characteristics of the Teaching profession are extracted from a number of studies. Subject Knowledge (Mc Namara,1991; Ingersoll, 1997), Teaching Prowess (Kouzes & Posner 1993; McNamara 1991), Updating Knowledge (Rose, 2002; Delong and Wideman, 1996;), Collegiality (Snell & Swanson, 2000; Ingram 1997), Empowerment (Phelps, 2006), Teacher-student relationship (Koutsoulis, 2003), Remuneration (Hodson & Sullivan, 1 995; Lavy, 2002), Commitment (Ashburn, 1 989; Anderman, 1 991) and Self development (Cheung & Cheng, 1 997) are the consolidated characteristics identified. These characteristics were extracted based on the fact that these qualities of the educator have significant impact on positive student achievement.

These characteristics were analysed for their impact on self, impact on others and on one's profession through literature review. Based on the review, the various facets of Teaching Profession are encompassed under three schema that focus on the Profession, Others-with whom the educator connects and Self, are respectively termed as Skill; Concern on Others and Concern on Self (Krishnaveni and Anitha, 2008)

The three factors, Subject Knowledge, Teaching Prowess and Updating Knowledge are classified in Skill as these characteristics contribute in enhancing ones professional skill, which is mainly teaching. Subject knowledge is the educator's expertise in respective discipline which is hard earned, thorough in content, extensive enough to assess and that is exhibited with confidence to supplement students in their core skills of the subjects. Teaching Prowess is the ability of the educator to employ appropriate pedagogy, effective communication skills, and demonstrate classroom management skills competent enough to sustain his/her credibility. And Updating Knowledge describes his/ her aspiration for updating his/her knowledge and improving the process of teaching through professional training, research and action research. This sphere, Skill talks about the content knowledge that the educator possess, his ability to transfer this knowledge to the learners--through his expertise, the pedagogy he uses and the communication skills that he possess and finally about the need for life-long learning for a professional which encompasses updating of content knowledge and action research which updates him with the student feedback.

The second sphere 'Concern on Others' consists of the factors Collegiality, Commitment and Teacher-Student Relationship. The first factor deals with his relationship with his peers whereas the second factor commitment is concerned with his responsibility towards his profession, students, parents, colleagues and management and institution that employed him. The third factor is connected with his relationship with the students with whom his major interactions remain which also includes mentoring and respecting the students' feelings. Collegiality is the sense of oneness with peers that enhance consensus rather than competition that results in developing and gaining professional skills and institution effectiveness through shared ideas, goals and practice. Commitment is defined as the educator's personal and professional investment of time and space with dedication to his profession that entails his/her work, institution, colleagues, students and the community. Teacher Student Relationship is where, the educator enrich his/her bond with the students through his/her interpersonal skills and developing a sense of responsibility, confidence and self discipline that enables them to interact freely and effectively in groups and also feel a sense of fair treatment and being attended with care and respect.

The third sphere, 'Concern on Self consists of Empowerment, Self-Development and Remuneration. Empowerment deals with the autonomy he exercises along with discretion, power and control while Self-Development is related to his growth aspect in personal and professional life. His career growth, leadership prospects and self organization are considered here. Remuneration in terms of monetary and recognition factors do have an impact on his growth and retention and is identified as a vital element of a profession. Upon defining these characteristics, Empowerment is the capacity of the educator to engross information and execute autonomy with discretion and control in decision making. Self-Development is the responsibility that the educator possesses toward him/ herself in achieving job satisfaction, managing time structure, meeting his career aspirations and enriching his leadership qualities for professional growth. Remuneration is the indisputable characteristic which rewards the complexity of the knowledge, skills and capabilities expressed by the educator that motivates and retains the talented individuals.

[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]

Objectives of the Study

In the light of the above exploration on various factors that influence sustainable student development, it was intended to study the existing level of identified professional characteristics and teacher efficacy among educators. Apart from the profiling of the characteristics, which gives a fair idea of the existing level of these qualities, it was also aimed to study the relationship between them. Therefore it was attempted to examine the association of the identified professional characteristics and teacher efficacy; and to study the impact of these professional characteristics on teacher efficacy. Upon realizing these objectives with statistical significance, one can determine the extent of importance of nurturing these professional characteristics to enrich teacher efficacy.

Methodology

The research is a descriptive and cross-sectional study that is perception based and region specific focused on the higher educational educators of the Coimbatore city.

The methodology of the study comprised a wide literature review that identified relationships between the various variables involved; instrument development and validation that included items on teacher efficacy and professional characteristics; model validation that details the relationship between professional characteristics and teacher efficacy; sampling, data collection and data analysis. 'Educator Professional Characteristics Scale' was developed to measure the professional characteristics and teacher efficacy of the educators. The constructs were tested for validity and reliability with a pilot data using SPSS (statistical package for social studies) data analysis and PLS path modeling, where the irrelevant items were eliminated for the final study and the model was validated for further research. This instrument was used to collect primary data from management educators. The professional characteristics were profiled using the mean and the standard deviation scores. Partial Least Squares regression was used to estimate the model explaining the relationship between professional characteristics and teacher efficacy.

Instrument Development and Validation

Item generation for professional characteristics was done through literature review followed by structured interviews with experts. The potential items were generated through the literature review. They are intended to measure the self-perception of educators regarding these characteristics. The measure for teacher efficacy was adopted from the Teacher Sense of Efficacy Scale of The Ohio State University developed by Tschannen-Moran and Woolfolk (2001). Out of the 24 items that studied both general teaching efficacy and personal teaching efficacy, the nine items pertaining to the personal teaching efficacy alone were taken for the instrument. A total of 85 items were generated that included items of the nine professional characteristics. The demographic factors such as gender, age, designation, discipline of teaching, number of years of experience in teaching and in industry, were also included in the scale.

Based on the feedback from the academicians and experts, redundant and ambiguous items were either modified or eliminated. New items were added whenever deemed necessary and the content validity was ensured. Purification was carried out by examining the corrected-item total correlation (CITC) score, an indicator of how well each item contributes to the internal consistency of a particular construct as measured by the Cronbach's alpha coefficient (Cronbach 1 951), of each item with respect to a specific dimension of a construct.

Construct validity was ensured through convergent validity, discriminant validity and confirmatory factor analysis. As the instrument measures qualitative constructs, the average variance extracted were above 40 percent and ensured convergent validity. The constructs were analyzed for discrimination by calculating the average root mean square variance between the respective constructs that has to be greater than the correlation between them, which ensured the discriminant validity. The factor loadings and cross loadings were analyzed for confirmatory factor analysis, where it was checked if the items have loaded highly on their respective constructs ensuring construct validity. Criterion validity for teacher efficacy was tested by examining the R2 value or the coefficient of determination, obtained for the construct whose value depicts the extent of representation by the professional characteristics. The R-square value of teacher efficacy 0. 485 describes that, 48. 5 percent of the variation of teacher efficacy is explained by the constructs which are shown in linear relationship with it. Proportions of variance above 25 percent are considered substantial (Heiman 1998). Thus, the instrument demonstrated high criterion validity. A total of 162 valid responses were collected from the pilot study, with an overall response rate of 81 percent. The 85 items were tested for content validity, criterion validity, and reliability scores and the items scoring less than the required values, were judged personally for their importance and need in contributing to the respective constructs. After the judgment analysis, the irrelevant items were deleted off the instrument. This process finally attained 60 items, with Cronbach alpha value 0. 91 72, which was used for the main data collection.

Sampling and Data Collection

The sample size was 642 that comprised educators from management discipline and were chosen from institutions offering arts and science streams, engineering streams and serving as standalone management institutes. Two stage random sampling was used, wherein the colleges were chosen at random in the first stage; and the educators were chosen at random from the faculty registers available in the management departments of the institutions. About 800 questionnaires were distributed in person to the educators and 642 valid responses were collected back which gave a response rate of 80 percent. As the data collection method was direct distribution of questionnaires, the researcher was able to attain a satisfactory response rate.

Data Analysis

The profiling of the professional characteristics and teacher efficacy was done through the mean scores measured for each of these characteristics. The mean scores were employed to present the general profile of the educators as well as the highest and lowest mean scores for the variables that depict the overall interests of the educators. The standard deviation and the standard of the mean statistic were also presented.

The data was analyzed to examine the impact of professional characteristics on teacher efficacy using correlation and partial least squares regression path modelling. The purpose of a model is to concisely provide a comprehensive representation of the relationships to be examined. The model is formalized in a path diagram which gives the graphical portrayal of the complete set of relationships among the model's constructs. Path analysis is a method that employs simple bivariate correlations to estimate the relationships in a system of structural equations. It is a procedure for empirical estimation of the strength of each relationship or path depicted in the path diagram. As the objective was to examine the impact of the professional characteristics on teacher efficacy, it would be best identified using a regression technique that would help in predicting the dependent variable teacher efficacy. These tests identified the statistically significant professional characteristics that influence teacher efficacy.

Findings

Profiling professional characteristics of educators

The data collected was analyzed and the prevalent professional characteristics of the educators were profiled. The mean value of the characteristics and the respective standard deviation was calculated as shown in Table I that examines the overall average scores and the variation in the characteristics. The overall score of professional characteristics was 4. 19 over a scale of 5, which depicts that in general, educators have perceived good professional characteristics.

It can be observed that subject knowledge aspect has obtained the highest mean and remuneration the lowest. Therefore in general, educators represented in this sample portray high confidence in possession of subject knowledge, but they do not give importance to remuneration. The other characteristics that score higher, next to subject knowledge are self development and teaching prowess. The scores of teacher student relationship and empowerment are lower next to remuneration. However the means of all the characteristics are above 3. 7 in a scale of 5 that implies quite rich professional characteristics for the sample as a whole. Teacher efficacy has scored a mean of 4. 04 for the sample which shows that the respondents in general were efficacious and believe in themselves in bringing out positive outcomes from students.

Correlation of Professional Characteristics and Teacher Efficacy

Teacher efficacy significantly correlates with all the professional characteristics at 0. 01 level of significance as depicted in Table II. The sample data correlation depicts that empowerment and self development has the strongest statistically significant factor identified, that emphasizes the correlation with teacher efficacy. Teaching prowess, commitment educator's belief in oneself in bringing and updating knowledge are also statistically significantly correlated as their coefficients are all above 0. 5. However all the correlation coefficients are statistically significant at 0. 01 level of significance.

SK-Subject knowledge; TP-Teaching prowess; UK-Updating knowledge; COL-Collegiality; CMT-Commitment; TSR-Teacher student relationship; EMP-Empowerment; SD-Self development; REM-Remuneration; TE Teacher Efficacy

It can be seen that all characteristics correlate significantly with teacher efficacy, depicting that changes in the professional characteristics are associated with changes in teacher efficacy and vice versa.

Estimating a Path Model relating Professional Characteristics and Teacher Efficacy

A theoretically based model was built and validated with the collected data by ensuring the measurement model fit and structural model fit. The estimated path model is shown in Figure 2 that specifies the causal inter-relationships between professional characteristics and teacher efficacy. The path diagram constructed using visual PLS is estimated using bootstrapping technique and evaluated using the fit indices. The subject knowledge and updating knowledge are defined as exogenous constructs leading to the endogenous construct of teaching prowess; collegiality and teacher student relationship as exogenous constructs relating to the endogenous construct of commitment. The relationships are further linked such that teaching prowess, commitment, empowerment, self development and remuneration are defined as exogenous constructs relating to the endogenous construct of teacher efficacy.

Appropriate sample size was ensured and bootstrapping was selected as the method of model estimation. The measurement model fit was evaluated using the composite reliability and variance extracted. The structura model fit was evaluated using the t statistic and coefficient of determination value. Also of interest were the correlations between the evaluative dimensions or the exogenous constructs that comprises the professional characteristics for the structural model fit. The composite reliability and average variance extracted shown in Table III was examinee to determine the measurement model fit. The composite reliability was well above 0. 7 for all the constructs. The average variance extracted is more than 0. 4 for most of the constructs except updating knowledge and teacher student relationship. These values depicts that the indicators are truly representative of the latent constructs.

The structural model fit is evaluated based on the t statistics obtained on running the model through the PLS technique and by analyzing the correlation between the characteristics. The estimated model shows that the R2 value of teacher efficacy is 0. 438, which depicts that the path model has strong criterion validity and that the professional characteristics are able to explain 43. 8 percent of the variance of teacher efficacy. The t statistic values given in the parentheses of the paths indicate the. path validity and signify the importance of the influence of the exogenous constructs on the endogenous constructs. All the values are significant at 95percent confidence level except for empowerment which indicates that empowerment is not strongly associated with teacher efficacy.

[FIGURE 2 OMITTED]

Apart from the t value and R2 value, the correlation between the constructs is also of interest to test the structural fit of the model. Examining the association between the characteristics, found that each of the characteristics except remuneration is significantly correlated at 0. 01 confidence level with each other. This correlation reveals that though empowerment does not have significant path validity, all the characteristics are interwoven with significant correlation and the educator should focus on all the dimensions to improve teacher efficacy. Remuneration may have been perceived with giving importance to monetary terms which the educators would have found not complimenting with the other characteristics in correlation. However it has significant path validity as per the model estimation.

Discussion

Profiling the professional characteristics map subject knowledge as the peak of existing characteristics in the study. Subject knowledge is typical of any profession and when it comes to teaching profession where knowledge is the transaction, it is quite obvious that educators perceive possession of subject knowledge is their utmost strength in their profession. Though remuneration is an undisputable characteristic of any profession that compensates the skill and complexity of the knowledge of the educator, it is not emphasized by their responses. Educators wanted to convey that other aspects of the career are more important than money. The characteristics of self development and teaching prowess are next in the list that scores higher. The results convey that educators are found to be more concerned with assessing self and taking necessary action to upgrade oneself by analyzing their strengths and weaknesses. Also they may be confident with their pedagogical skills and communication skills in their classroom that is depicted through the scores of teaching prowess. As empowerment comes through experience, educators are empowered only at the respective positions. This must have reduced the overall scores of empowerment that have been calculated including educators in all levels. Educators with these characteristics enhanced will be able to exhibit enhanced sense of efficacy and will be able to incorporate sustainable development in the students.

The PLS path model vividly shows the extent to which the professional characteristics influence teacher efficacy. Teacher efficacy is the dependent or criterion variable and the professional characteristics are the independent or predictor variables which when processed through a partial least squares regression, resulted that subject knowledge (t -6. 02) and updated knowledge (t=6. 24) has a significant path validity to teaching prowess; collegiality (t=3. 55) and Teacher student relationship (t= 7. 059) are significantly explaining commitment which shows the validity of the impact of the endogenous variables over the exogenous variables. And further, teaching prowess (t= 2. 4) and commitment (t = 3. 36), now as endogenous variables, and self development (t = 5. 87) and remuneration (t = 4. 095) has a significant path validity towards teacher efficacy. The predictor variables or the endogenous variables explain teacher efficacy to the extent of 43. 8 percent (R2) which is statistically significant. The Coefficient of determination (R2) describes the variability in teacher efficacy accounted for by the regression which is found statistically significant. This implies that the endogenous constructs have a significant impact on teacher efficacy and hence they have significant explanatory power of teacher efficacy. Therefore improvement in teacher efficacy can be attained by concentrating on these specific professional characteristics.

The heads of institution, teacher trainers, administrators and policy makers would concentrate on the various ways to enrich these professional characteristics. Subject knowledge shall be enriched by motivating the educator to be aware of proper subject content (Goldhaber and Brewer 1 997) and also be confident in the knowledge they possessed (Molander 1 992; McNamara 1 991, Fang et al., 2011).

Teaching Prowess is the ability to teach including pedagogical skills, communication skills and expertise in subject. Experiences of teaching shapes pedagogic content knowledge and subject knowledge (McNamara 1991). This when combined with classroom management skills results in the credibility of the teacher (Kouzes 1993). Updating Knowledge emphasize on life long learning which results in enriched aptitude and dexterity of the educator. This may be achieved through classroom environment (Stenhouse 1981) and through conferences, workshops, professional training, professional organization and research (Black and Armstrong 1995, Camarero, et al., 2012, Ellis and Castle, 2010). The concern of the educators in interpersonal relationship and collaborative activities with their colleagues are taken as the measures of collegiality. Ingram (1997) explains higher order needs, such as achievement and collaborative decision making will reflect collegiality and will lead the teachers to take on greater responsibility to achieve shared goals and visions.

Commitment is a preference for remaining in the job and a sense of identification with the organization. If a system needs to be effective, result oriented and sustainable in educational institutions, it requires tremendous commitment from the educator (Ramalho and Wilcox, 201 2). As per Naik (1988), teachers' accountability or commitment involves moral, professional and contractual aspects that deal with their responsibility towards the persons they connect, the profession and the employing institution respectively. The mutual trust between the educator and the student, educators' respect for student feelings, having a positive control over them and executing impartiality in their rapport with the students are certain ways of improving the teacher student relationship (Ellis and Castle, 2010). Self development is a corollary that develops in one's professional life. The educator monitors his performance and amends necessary changes for his personal and professional growth. Analyzing the environment, planning, affiliating, developing and directing, implementing, evaluating and monitoring (Cheung and Cheng, 1996), self evaluation and change, imparting significance to time management are the various means that will result in self development of a teacher.

Remuneration is an undisputable characteristic that an educator has to give significance by realizing the importance of self worth and claiming the deserving remuneration, for the reason that the studies show a number of desirable effects of this factor. Given the complexity of the knowledge and skills required, relatively high levels of compensation are necessary to recruit and retain capable and motivated individuals (Hodson and Sullivan 1 995, Ingersoll 1 997). The above discussion gives a few ways of how the professional characteristics may be focused for improvement. This is expected to improve the teacher efficacy which is one of the very important qualities of the teacher to groom a student with positive outcomes.

The study has proved the relationship between teacher efficacy and the professional characteristics of educators. Therefore improving the characteristics of the educator as discussed above will have a definite impact on their efficacy and in turn on sustainable student development. The research gives a valid path model that explains the relationship between the professional characteristics and teacher efficacy as well as the strength of the same. The professional characteristics identified for the study are those characteristics that are always essential for an educator, irrespective of the evolution of the teaching methods or pedagogy or any developments in the teaching arena. Even when teaching methods evolve into e-learning and virtual classrooms (Camarero et al., 2012) it is essential for an educator to possess each one of these characteristics and the sense of efficacy in order to bring about sustainable student achievement. However the study leaves a wide scope for studying and measuring student development quantitatively and specifically.

Conclusion

As per Blewitt (2010), the Higher Education sector responsiveness to new economic and environmental, low carbon, imperatives is certainly encouraging a need for flexibility and adaptability, new multidisciplinary and transdisciplinary research approaches and new pedagogies that embrace the affordances of new media/ new learning ecologies. Apart from such improvements in the approaches and curricula of the management education sector, it is highly desirable for efficient and efficacious teachers to sustain any fruitful realisation. A graduate attribute is needed that suggests in a changing world individuals and groups should learn not only to accommodate changes but enjoy them, go with them and in so doing shape them according to values and principles. And educators play a major role in achieving the same. Of the many ways, enhancing the sense of efficacy directly and through the professional characteristics will provide effective solutions for sustainable student development.

References

Anderman, E. M. (1991). Teacher Commitment and Job Satisfaction: The Role of School Culture and Principal Leadership. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American educational research association. Chicago, IL, 3- 7 April.

Armor, D. J., Conry, O. P, CoxM. A., King, N., McDonnell, L. M., Pascal, A. H., Pauly, E.,Zellman, G., Sumner, G. C., & Thompson, V. M. (1 976). Analysis ofthe School Preferred Reading Programs in Selected Los Angeles Minority Schools. (Report No. R-2007-LAUSD). Santa Monica, CA: Rand.

Ashburn, E. A. (1 989). The nature of teacher's commitment and its relationship to school work place conditions. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American educational research association, San Francisco.

Ashton, P. (1984). Teacher efficacy: A motivational paradigm for effective teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education, 55(1), 28-32.

Ashton, PT (1 985). Motivation and the teacher's sense of efficacy. In Amesand C, Ames R. (Eds) Research on motivation in education: 2, The classroom milieu, pp 141-174. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.

Ashton, PT, & Webb, R. B. (1 986). Making the difference: teacher's sense of efficacy and student achievement. New York: Longman.

Berman, P, McLaughlin, M., Bass, G., Pauly, E., & Zellman,G. (1 977). Federal programs supporting educational change, 7. Factors Affecting Implementation and Continuation. Santa Monica, GA: Rand

Black, D. R., & Armstrong, P. (1995). Some aspects of staff development in international schools. International Journal of Educational Management, 9 (4), 27-33.

Blewitt, J. (2010). Higher Education for a sustainable world. Education plus Training, 52 (6/7), 477-488.

Camarero, Carmen., Javier Rodriguez., & Rebeca, San, Jose. (201 2). Evaluating the use of forums as a learning tool based on the technology acceptance model. Online Information Review, 36 (4), 6.

Cheung, W. M., & Cheng, YC. (1996). A multi-level framework for self-management in school. International Journal of Educational Management, 70 (1), 17-29.

Cheung, W. M., & Cheng, YC. (1997). Self-management: implications for teacher training. Training for Quality, 5(4), 160-168.

Davies, S., Edmister, J., Sullivan, K. &West, C. (2003). Educating sustainable societies for the twenty-first century. International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, 4 (2), 169-79.

Deemer, S. A., & Kathleen, M. M. (1 993). An investigation of the factor structure of the teacher efficacy scale. Journal of Educational Research, 93 (1).

Delong, J., & Wideman, R. (1996). School improvement that honours teacher professionalism, In N. Halsall and L. Hossick. (Eds.). Act, reflect, revise, revitalize Mississauga, pp 1 5-1 7. ON: The Ontario public school teachers' federation.

Ellis, Charles., & Castle, Kathryn. (2010). Teacher research as continuous process improvement. Quality Assurance in Education, 18 (4), 271-285.

Fang., Yanping., Christine K. E., Lee., &Yang, Yudong. (2011). Developing curriculum and pedagogical resources for teacher learning: A lesson study video case of "Division with Remainder" from Singapore. International Journal for Lesson and Learning Studies, 1 (1), 65-84.

Gitsham, M. (2011). CEO perspectives: management education in a changing context. Corporate Governance, 11(4), 501-512.

Goldhaber, D., & Brewer, D. (1997). Evaluating the effect of teacher degree level on educational performance. In W. Fowler (Ed.), Developments in school finance, 1996, pp 197-210. Washington, DC: U. S. Department of education, National center for education statistics. (ED 409 634).

Guskey, T. R. (1988). Teacher efficacy, self-concept, and attitudes toward the implementation of educational innovation. Teaching and Teacher Education, 4 (1), 63-9.

Heiman, G. W. (1998). Understanding research methods and statistics: An integrated introduction for psychology, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 244-266.

Hodson, R., & Sullivan T. (1 995). Professions and Professionals, The Social Organisation of Work, 287-314, 2nd Ed, Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Ingersoll, R. M. (1 997). Teacher Professionalisation and Teacher Commitment: A multilevel Analysis. Statistical Analysis Report. Report no: ISBN-0-16-048975-X; NCES97-069. Reports-Research Technical (143)-Statistical Data (110).

Ingram, PD. (1 997). Leadership behaviours of principals in inclusive educational settings. Journal of Educational Administration, 35 (5), 411 -427.

International Association of Universities (IAU) (2006). IAU Conference: Education for a sustainable future. Conference general report, available at: www. unesco. org/iau/sd/sd_confprague. html (accessed December 12, 2011).

Kerr, D. S., & Smith, L. M. (1995). Importance of and approaches to incorporating ethics into the accounting Classroom. Journal of Business Ethics, 14 (1), 987-995.

Koutsoulis, M. (2003). The Characteristics of the Effective Teacher in Cyprus public high school: The Student's Perspective. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American educational research association Chicago, IL, 21-25, April.

Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (1993). Credibility: how leaders gain and lose it, why people demand it. San Francisco : Jossey- Bass publishers.

Krishnaveni, R., & Anitha, J. (2008). Towards standardising education: Specific dispositions for educators and their impact on Teacher Efficacy. Vikaipa, 33 (1), 85-92

Lavy, V. (2002). Evaluating the effect of teachers' group performance incentives on pupil achievement. Journal of Political Economy, 110(6), 1286-1318

McNamara, D. (1991). Subject Knowledge and Its Application: Problems and possibilities for teacher educators. Journal of Education for Teaching, 77 (2).

Midgely, C, Feldlaufer H., & Eccles, J. (1989). Change in teacher efficacy and student self- and task-related beliefs in mathematics during the transition to junior high school. Journal of Educational Psychology 81 (2), 247-58.

Molander, B. (1992). Tacit knowledge and silenced knowledge: Fundamental problems and controversies, In Goranzon, B & Florin. M. (Eds), Skill and Education: Reflection and Experience, Springer- Verlag, Berlin, 9-31.

Naik, S. P (1 988). Theory of teacher training, NewDelhi: Anmol Publications.

Phelps, PH. (2006). The Three Rs of Professionalism. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 42 (2), 69-71.

Ramalho, Elizabeth., Murakami, Wilcox., & Kathleen, A. (2012). Response to intervention implementation: A successful principal's approach. Journal of Educational Administration, 50 (4), 5.

Rose, R. (2002). Teaching as a 'research based profession, encouraging practitioner research in special education. British Journal of Special Education, 29 (1).

Ross, J. A. (1 994). Beliefs that Make a Difference: The Origins and Impacts of Teacher Efficacy. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Canadian association for curriculum studies, June.

Ross, J. A., (1 998). The antecedents and consequences of teacher efficacy, In Brophy, J. (Ed.), Advances in Research on Teaching, 7 (1), 49-75

Sherren, K. (2006). Core issues: Reflections on sustainability in Australian University coursework programs. International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, 7 (4), 400-13.

Sibbel, A. (2009). Pathways towards sustainability through higher education. International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, 10 (1), 68-82.

Smylie, M. A. (1988). The enhancement function of staff development: Organizational and psychological antecedents to individual teacher change. American Educational Research Journal, 25 (1), 1-30.

Snell, J., & Swanson, J. (2000). The Essential knowledge and skills of Teacher leaders: A Search for a conceptual framework. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American educational research association (New Orleans, LA, April 24-28, 2000). Reports- Descriptive (141)-Speeches meeting papers (1 50).

Stenhouse, L. (1 981). What counts as research? British Journal of Educational Studies, 29 (2), 1 03-114.

Trentham, L., Silvern S., & Brogdon R. (1985). Teacher efficacy and teacher competency ratings. Psychology in the Schools, 22 (1), 343-352.

Tschannen, Moran M., & Hoy, A. W. (2001). Teacher efficacy: Capturing an elusive construct. Teaching and Teacher Education, 17 0), 783-805.

Tschannen, Moran M., Hoy A. W., & Hoy, W. K. (1998). Teacher efficacy: Its meaning and measure. Review of Educational Research. 68 (1), 202-248.

Woolfolk. (2004). Educational psychology review. An interview with Anita Woolfolk: The Educational Psychology of Teacher Efficacy, 76(2).

J. Anitha

Associate Professor,

GRG School of Management Studies,

Coimbatore.

R. Krishnaveni

Professor,

PSG Institute of Management,

Coimbatore.

Table - 1

Professional characteristics profile of the
educators

                                            Mean      Std. Deviation
Professional Characteristics              Statistic     Statistic

Subject knowledge (SK)                      4.537         0.438
Teaching prowess (TP)                       4.326         0.499
Updating knowledge (UK)                     4.248         0.499
Collegiality (COL)                          4.222         0.518
Commitment (CMT)                            4.275         0.485
Teacher student relationship (TSR)          3.909         0.578
Empowerment (EMP)                           4.069         0.630
Self development (SD)                       4.357         0.530
Remuneration (REM)                          3.754         0.766
Professional characteristics (in total)     4.189         0.338

Table - II

Correlation of the professional characteristics
with Teacher Efficacy

                  SK        TP        UK        COL

Pearson         0.46 **   0.53 **   0.54 **   0.46 **
correlation
value with TE

                  CMT       TSR       EMP       SD        REM

Pearson         0.53 **   0.45 **   0.61 **   0.59 **   0.28 **
correlation
value with TE

** Correlation is significant at ife 0.0! level (2-tailed).

Table - III

Reliability and Average Variance Extracted

                               Composite           Cronbach
Construct                     Reliability   AVE     Alpha

Subject knowledge                0.84       0.51     0.78
Teaching prowess                 0.82       0.54     0.71
Updating knowledge               0.78       0.38     0.67
Collegiality                     0.86       0.47     0.80
Commitment                       0.78       0.43     0.57
Teacher student relationship     0.82       0.35     0.74
Empowerment                      0.87       0.53     0.82
Self development                 0.88       0.72     0.80
Remuneration                     0.78       0.44     0.74
Teacher efficacy                 0.72       0.42     0.73