You just want to be like that: teacher modelling and intercultural competence in young language learners.

Moloney, Robyn

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ABSTRACT

Language teachers are called upon to understand both the nature of students' intercultural competence and their own rote in its development. Limited research attention has been paid to the relationship between the types of behaviour that language teachers model and the intercultural competence their students acquire. This article reports on a case study in an Australian primary school that used qualitative research methods to investigate types of language teacher behaviour that facilitate the development of intercultural competence in students. Four teachers and 49 Year 6 students took part in interviews and focus group discussions and were observed in the classroom. Coding themes were developed to analyse the data. Teachers' understanding of interculturality in themselves and their students, their modelling of spoken interaction, their metalinguistic knowledge, and their priorities in task design all appear to actively facilitate particular aspects of students' intercultural competence. The findings of this study extend the understanding of the role of teacher behaviour in intercultural language learning. The article suggests that a diverse expression of teacher interculturality needs to be acknowledged and respected for its effectiveness in facilitating intercultural competence in students.

KEY WORDS

Intercultural competence, teacher education, primary language learning, modelling, teacher interculturality.

INTRODUCTION

This article reports on the results of a case study in an Australian primary school that investigated language teacher modelling and its facilitation of intercultural competence in students.

The rapid development of intercultural language learning in Australia and abroad in the last decade has been remarkable. In less than a decade a number of writers have developed principles for intercultural language learning and elaborated their application in practice (Byram, Nichols, & Stevens, 2001; Corbett, 2003, Liddicoat, Papademetre, Scarino, & Kohler, 2003; Papademetre & Scarino, 2006). There have also been initiatives in teacher professional development and the production of resources that foreground intercultural comparison and reflection skills within language learning (Asia Education Foundation (AEF), 2004, Intercultural Language Teaching and Learning Project (ILTLP), 2007). Underlying these various initiatives has been a common understanding of the contested nature of culture. Prom an earlier classroom focus on teaching literature or the arts as culture, there has been a shift to an emphasis on what is shared in the waft of life of a speech community's members. Working in such a way involves critical reflection by both teacher and learner about the relationships that exist between their languages and cultures.

WHILE LANGUAGE TEACHING CONTINUES TO help learners acquire the linguistic competence needed to communicate, it must now also develop intercultural competence, i.e. the ability to reach a shared understanding of meaning by people of different social identities. To achieve this, teachers need to understand both the nature of intercultural development in students and the facilitating role of their own behaviour.

There are few examples of classroom practice to help teachers understand either the nature of intercultural competence or how to facilitate it (Harbon & Browett, 2006, p. 28). In particular, as Jokikokko (2005) among others has pointed out, limited research attention has been paid to the relationship between a language teacher's 'way of acting' (Ryan, 1998) and the development of intercultural competence by students.

The study reported here is part of a larger study, in which qualitative research methods were used to investigate intercultural competence in students. The results will contribute to current initiatives in intercultural language teacher training and to helping teachers identify the types of behaviour that facilitate students' intercultural competence.

THE ATTRIBUTES OF AN INTERCULTURAL LANGUAGE TEACHER

A review of relevant literature in the field of intercultural language teaching suggests that the types of teacher behaviour that best facilitate the development of intercultural competence in students can be grouped as follows:

* understanding intracultural and intercultural development in both first and subsequent languages and cultures in themselves and in their students (AEF, 2004; De Mejia 2002; Jokikokko, 2005; Kramsch, 1987; Liddicoat et al., 2003; Ryan, 1998)

* being an effective personal model of the target language and culture (Australian Federation of Modern Language Teachers Associations, 2005; Byram, 1989)

* encouraging 'noticing'; having and displaying a knowledge of linguistic connections (AEF, 2004; Hoare & Kong, 2000)

* designing tasks that stimulate interest and reflection (AEF, 2004; Liddicoat et al., 2003; Seelye, 1994).

This summary of teacher indicators was used to inform the analysis of teacher data used in this study.

In order to link teachers with students, it was also necessary to identify indicators of intercultural competence in students. A summary of the relevant literature reveals that intercultural competence may be demonstrated when students

* display purposeful use of language in interaction and knowledge and modelling of contextual use (Liddicoat et al., 2003; Ryan, 1998)

* display reflective critical thinking--noticing, describing, analysing (Carr, 1999; Liddicoat et al., 2003; Scarino, 2000)

* develop an independent cultural identity and are aware of a relationship between their first language and culture and the 'target language and culture (AEF, 2004; Kramsch, 1993) and of their ownership of a non-native membership of the target culture (Duff, 2006; Liddicoat et al., 2003).

This summary of characteristics was used to inform the analysis of student data as described below.

THE CASE-STUDY SCHOOL

The case-study school--which permitted its real name being used in this report--was the International Grammar School in Sydney, a secular, independent, K-12 coeducational school, founded in 1984. Both the student population and the staff are culturally diverse. The school was chosen due to its commitment to the provision of languages education from preschool to Year 12, and in particular, to the provision of a partial immersion language program in the primary school. Primary students study selected units of the curriculum in the target language (French, German, Japanese, or Italian) for 80 minutes each day (Moloney, 2004). This program is termed an 'enrichment model', i.e. one in which children learn a second or additional language at school, and in which additive bilingualism is the result (Baker, 2006).

THE PARTICIPANTS

The study investigated four teachers of three Year 6 classes taking French, German, and Japanese (the last shared by two teachers). Biographical information about the teacher participants is presented in Table I. These classes were chosen because they are the languages in which the researcher has proficiency. Year 6 students were chosen because of their length of exposure to the language program and for their higher level of verbal communication. There were two further considerations concerning participants:

* Variables in cultural backgrounds amongst teachers and students could not be controlled.

* Although the researcher was employed at the school as Director of Languages, she had not taught any of the participating students.

METHOD

The study is a snapshot, cross-sectional study of teachers and students. Classroom observation took place over a ten-week period. Field notes were taken during observation and the classes were also audio-recorded. In addition to being observed, the four teachers each took part in a 40-minute structured interview. Students also took part in one semi-structured focus group discussion of around 60 minutes, held in groups of between five and seven students. Focus group and individual interviews were audio-recorded. Recorded data were transcribed. Data were thematically coded and analysed as explained below.

In order to identify links between teacher behaviour and students' intercultural competence, sets of teacher and student data were examined for thematic similarities. From this, the most important types of teacher behaviour that appeared linked to the facilitation of intercultural competence in students were identified.

RESULTS

Analysis of teacher data

Using the four teacher qualities for successful intercultural language learning as suggested by the background literature above to code themes in the teacher data produced the following results.

Understanding intercultural development in themselves

The four teachers (T1-T4) expressed their personal intraculturality in descriptions of their identity, cultural roots, and values. Some diversity in their understanding of culture and interculturality was also evident. For example, T2 and T4 perceived a degree of fluidity in their shifting perspectives. T2 described herself as a 'seventh generation Australian', but said she had developed 'a more Japanese perspective ... [and had] learnt to put on a different hat'. Describing the place she occupies between her German and Australian identities, T4 said: 'I'm somewhere in between ... I shift continually ... it's not that fixed any more.'

T1 expressed attachment to the cultural values of her first culture:

 My traditional values ... have
 largely remained the same ...; we
 have to respect old people ...; male
 should be the dominant.

Similarly, T3 said:

 I don 't seem to lose my very
 Japanese aspects ... I can 't change
 myself in regard to respect for older
 people or the way we speak to other
 people.

T1 and T3 described their way of teaching French and Japanese culture, respectively, as focused on festivals, craft activites, and culture-specific food. Nevertheless, in their classrooms, the two teachers are practitioners and models of a broader view of culture. For example, T1 included elements of intercultural learning such as the cultural meaning of the French tu/vous forms of address, invited students to think about comparisons with English, and encouraged students to use the French context for thinking and problem solving:

 When I reach grammar, I [tell]
 them: 'If you think in English, you
 think like this ... but if you think in
 French, you think differently; you
 will have to change, you think like
 this ... it's different ideas.'

Understanding intercultural development in their students

The four teachers spoke about their understanding of students' intercultural development in terms of identity shift, language use, and risk-taking. For example, T3 claimed that students

 ... don 't feel awkward to bow to the
 teachers; they don't bother asking
 why, they just do it ... the students
 just shift and use both of [the two
 languages/cultures].

T2 observed students' interculturality as it was occurring in their language comprehension: 'They are operating within it (intercultural competence) when I'm talking to them in Japanese and they don't even realise their instant response.' T2 also saw development of interculturality in students' interest in contemporary life in reflective discussion in class: 'Conversation comes up [about] bow young Japanese live ... respect, manners, politeness.'

T4 saw the students' development of a German identity as lying in their membership of the language community: 'Just knowing the language makes them feel part of it.' For T4 the risk-taking in students' use of language was important in their development:

 ... to have them see suddenly [that
 they can] actually say something ...
 they can go and talk to somebody,
 which is absolutely empowering for
 them, and for me.

T2 felt that her students' development lay in understanding the social relationships embedded in Japanese language structures. She explicitly drew attention to these relationships in class, making comparisons with students' Australian lifestyles and values: '... all the levels of politeness built in ... the way you refer to people.' T2 wanted her students to understand

 ... manners; making sure you start
 and finish a lesson properly,
 greetings ... the way that Japanese
 go about doing things.

Modelling the target language and culture

As teachers using an immersion language method, T1-T4 were all engaged in the classroom in target language interactions with students. From classroom observation data, there were interactions of praise, discipline, jokes, and instructions, frequently with visual cues and gestures. In this way, students are expected to comprehend and negotiate an appropriate response in order 'to operate within the culture' (Lo Bianco, 2003, p. 25). Teachers were also observed to explicitly model specific language items. In the classroom, students were observed to model teacher forms of address, features of syntax, fluency markers, and teacher humour.

Displaying knowledge of metalinguistic connections

All four teachers explicitly pointed out to their students special features of their target language in the course of activities. T2 drew attention to understanding polite and casual speech forms in Japanese and to listener use of back-channelling conversion (aizuchi) as encouraging feedback to the speaker. T3 included a game of constructing sentence elements.

T1 and T4 both included explicit grammar explanations to promote mastery of the complexity of verb systems and syntax, and also, in T4's perception, to empower meaning making in students. Both teachers say they are keen to do this grammar teaching interculturally in order to help students make linguistic connections between the target language and English.

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T4 spent some time in every observed lesson initiating 'noticing': drawing attention to gender, spelling, differences from English, and particular features of German. T1 conveyed, as noted, a contextual view of grammar as socio-cultural organisation of thought, a French way of thinking, as expressed in construction of language.

Designing purposeful language tasks that stimulate and allow reflection

As suggested by Liddicoat et al. (2003), task design that contained linguistic or cultural connections, social interaction, and opportunities for reflection, were looked for as indicators reflecting an intercultural language perspective in the design.

All lessons observed involved a variety of experiential tasks in different media and skills and included a repertoire of games.

Teachers consistently presented tasks that demanded a purposeful use of the target language, frequently using resources produced in the target language country or for first-language speakers. For example, lessons observed included preparation of oral presentations using PowerPoint, pairwork gap activities, competitive quizzes, construction of written text, a grid-based language game, viewing and discussion of a film, craft, and cooking.

In addition to the above, a series of four German lessons in particular demonstrated elements of design for intercultural learning. These lessons were part of the topic 'Countries and Capitals' (K-6 HSIE syllabus, Board of Studies, NSW, 1998) and were conducted through a series of interactive speaking activities and hands-on tasks. Across the four lessons, the following tasks were completed:

* an introductory oral discussion of the map of Europe, and identification of some countries and their names in German

* using German atlases, discussing the gender and spelling of country names, grouping countries with same gender, attention to differences with English

* a pairwork activity using maps and scaffolded question/answer structures

* a pairwork activity based on greetings in different languages and in different countries

* a pairwork activity based on the linguistic origin of various German words.

Student responses to these lessons were engaged and active. They asked many reflective questions (in both German and English) about changes in placement of borders, political matters, linguistic differences with English, the contrast of being a European country to an island nation like Australia that has no shared borders, and the arbitrary nature of language. Although it was not the principal focus, there was also some investigation of linguistic and geographical differences between Germany and Australia.

In sum, the characteristics of intercultural task design were represented in each language classroom, but 'opportunities for reflection' were infrequent. It is not clear why this was the case. It can only be speculated that the teachers had limited expectations of primary children's capacity for reflection, or that they underestimated the learning value for students of the critical thinking involved in incidental comparisons and reflections.

Analysis of student data

Student focus group transcripts were analysed using themes drawn from the literature. The results presented below show student perceptions of the types of teacher behaviour discussed above, i.e. teachers' interculturality and modelling, their spoken interaction, their metalinguistic knowledge, and their task design. Table 2 presents data from the total number of students (49) whose focus group interview comments fell within these themes. The results are set out under these themes below, with some sample comments to illustrate them.

Perceptions of teacher interculturality and modelling

Although students were unfamiliar with the term 'interculturality', they presented a number of perceptions of teacher behaviour that match the meaning of the concept as set out in the literature. These included perceptions of teachers' use of language and their membership of two languages and cultures. Thus many students (40/49) said they admired the model offered by their teachers, even when they harboured self-doubt about achieving the same level themselves. For example:

 I see the Japanese teachers talking
 to each other ... you really want to
 learn how to do that, you really
 want to be like that. (Violet)
 You really admire your teacher,
 and how well they speak.
 (Veronica)

Particular features of the teachers' language, such as fluency, speed, and use of dialect, were admired by 20 of the students. Bob, for example, said:

 The German teachers, it's full [sic]
 serious; they talk so fast ... like,
 whack! It all comes out!

Some students referred to copying specific teacher language behaviour, such as handwriting:

 If I wanted to be French I did this
 once [writes]. Hove the way
 Madame X writes her 7's and f's. I
 copied that, and do it. (Jacqueline)

Grace summed up her perception of T2's interculturality by saying:

 I think [she] is a lot Japanese even
 though she's not. I reckon she's
 really good because she has learnt a
 lot of stuff, and she tries hard to be
 Japanese, even though she's not.
 She tries more.

T1's students suggested that they understand a continuity between her modelling of French and the way they engage with a concept in French.

 She's teaching in French, we know
 it in French, we're thinking in
 French, we're understanding in
 French. (Timmy)

Perceptions of spoken interaction with teachers

Despite the teachers' perception that the four language skills are equally important, a high proportion of the students (33/49) declared that the language teacher's main function is to facilitate students' speaking ability. Several put the view that to be able to participate in spoken interaction is to be able to function as a member of the group, to access knowledge, and to develop in the target language. Thus Sharon commented that, 'If you actually speak it, you learn new things, and the pronunciation'. Malcolm said: 'At language camp you really feel, you really speak German'; and Violet explained: 'I kind of talk, and act, Japanese.'

Perceptions of teachers' attention to metalinguistic knowledge

Although students complained about their teachers making them 'do verbs', they also mentioned their teachers' guidance in construction and syntax as a contributing element of their target language mastery and confidence. 'We are learning how to put Japanese together', said Oscar. + [FIGURE 1 OMITTED]

In some lessons explicit metalinguistic connections were infrequently made by teachers, yet 63% of the students made comments comparing their first and target languages, and even other languages. Emiko commented that in language learning 'you get more understanding [about] how language works and how different people are'. Bob said that

 ... [he liked] learning German
 because it helps with learning other
 languages as well because many
 languages share words that sound
 sort of the same.

Perceptions of task design for purposeful language use

Student critique of teacher task design and choices was a popular theme of the focus groups. A significant 41/49 students connected the teacher's choice of experiential hands-on tasks with a sense of purpose in their language learning. For example, when asked what type of task helped her to learn most, Tamsin said:

 I like it when we are playing games
 'cause then it's something good you
 are learning it for.

Xavier agreed:

 You know that you 're learning
 something and it's for a purpose.

Bill liked German

 ... because we do a lot of hands-on
 stuff, like posters and drawings and
 watch a movie.

Correlation

After analysing the teacher data sets and student data sets using the same four thematic codes, it was possible to examine the results looking for links between teacher behaviour, classroom interaction, and the development of intercultural competence in the students.

The integration of the four overlapping areas of teacher behaviour is represented in Figure I. A summary of the possible links between the different types of teacher behaviour and student development in the study is presented in Table 3. The four areas of student behaviour listed are mostly derived from the students' perceptions of themselves. Those that match components of the students' space at the centre of Figure I are of particular pertinence to the topic of the study and these are discussed below.

The strength of feeling about being a member of a class-based target language community is strongly affirmed by students like Jacqueline and Naomi. The former said, 'I feel about 60% French in class', while the latter, who had only joined the school and the French program in Year 4, commented:

 I've changed, in that now [can
 speak to other people in French ... I
 feel 100% Aussie outside the French
 class, but inside the French classroom
 I think I feel like a backpacker in
 France ... I'm getting there.

Students attributed their intercultural development almost exclusively to their teacher's intervention:

 I guess in a way I feel like a
 different person, like when the
 teacher talks to you in French, you
 go.' 'Right, I'm in French class, I'll
 answer in French.'

Their comments also show them to be clear that their goal is not to become a native speaker, but to develop ownership of competence as a non-native communicator. As developing communicators they are grounded in social interaction with their teacher and each other. They thus realise well the notion that a successful intercultural language learner '[recognises] that social interaction is central to communication' (Liddcoat et al., 2003, p. 49).

In sum, the findings of the study show that all criteria for intercultural language teaching behaviour were met in the sites observed, albeit in different ways and to different degrees, and that this behaviour is noticed, appreciated, copied, and thought about by the students, albeit also in different ways and to different degrees.

CONCLUSION

This article has situated its study of teacher and student intercultural competence in relation to current literature on intercultural language learning, and provides illustration of definitions and indicators drawn from that literature. Using interview and observation data, the study considered aspects of both teacher behaviour and of student perceptions. The teachers' 'way of acting' (Ryan, 1998) is expressed in a repertoire of behaviour: their own interculturality, their spoken interaction with students, their modelling of metalinguistic connections, and their priorities in task design. Matches between teacher and student data suggest a facilitating link between these types of behaviour and the development of intercultural competence in their students, as expressed in a repertoire of self-perceptions and behaviour: understanding a degree of identity shift as members of two (or more) language communities, and acting as purposeful communicators with metalinguistic ability.

As a case study, the results of this project are essentially particular, but sufficient information has been provided to enable those in similar situations to find the knowledge generated usable in their own setting. The study also provides an enhanced understanding of the role of teacher modelling in intercultural language learning. It suggests that the cultural and pedagogic diversity in language teachers can be a powerful resource in facilitating intercultural competence in students. Teachers need to find their own individual way to achieve an intercultural approach to language teaching with and through their own behaviour in order to maximise learning in their students.

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Robyn Moloney is Director of Cultural Programs at the International Grammar School, Sydney. She also teaches in the Faculty of Education and Social Work at the University of Sydney and has recently completed a Doctorate of Education. She may be contacted at robynm@igssyd.nsw.edu.au.

Table 1
Biographical information about about teacher participants

Teacher Gender Background Languages

T1 Female Egyptian 1: French 2: English 3: Arabic
T2 Female Australian 1: English 2: Japanese
T3 Female Japanese 1: Japanese 2: English
T4 Female German/Swiss 1: German 2: English

Table 2
Number of mentions by students
of areas of thematic code (N = 49)

 Number of Percentage
Areas of thematic code mentions mentions

Positive attitude to target
 language culture 47 96%
Enjoyment of experiential tasks 41 84%
Copying/admiring teacher
 language model 40 82%
Identification with target
 language culture 36 73%
Teacher as conveyor of culture 35 7100%
Mastery of speaking as a priority 33 67%
Own ability to move between
 languages 32 65%
Comparing first and second
 languages 31 63%
Features of the target language 30 61%
Noticing features of teacher
 language, fluency 20 41%
Perception that target language
 embodies target culture 19 39%

Table 3
Teacher behaviour and associated indicators of
students' intercultural competence in the study

Teacher behaviour that may
 facilitate intercultural Student behaviour indicative of
 competence in students intercultural competence

Teacher designs purposeful Students see themselves as
 language tasks that stimulate purposeful language users in
 and allow reflection a meaningful context
Teacher is an effective model Students prioritise spoken
 of the target language and interaction as a key element of
 culture competence
Teacher displays knowledge of Students display metalinguistic
 metalinguistic connections abilities and notice differences
 in first and second languages
 and the role of language in
 general
Teacher understands culture and Students experience identity shift
 identity in self and students and change, owning their
 roles as non-native language
 users