Three dimensional transitional relationships: a study on Indian women entrepreneurs/Uc boyutlu gecisken iliskiler: Hindistanli kadin girisimciler uzerine bir calisma.

Ganesan, R.

Introduction

Entrepreneurship is crucial for overall development and economic sustenance of any nation. In the recent years, it gained importance with the participation of women. Women today are more progressive and play a vital role in terms of fulfilling their economical needs and attaining social status. Moreover, eentrepreneurship development directly contributes to the global positioning of many developed countries. It is always asserted that individuals might be more inclined to pursue entrepreneurship, if they believe that they possess skills, such as higher education, that are necessary to function effectively in an entrepreneurial environment (Gupta & York, 2008). In accordance with the above lines, it has been presumed that emergence of women entrepreneurs in a society mainly depends on changing social, psychological, economic, religious, cultural, technological and political dimensions, which invoke a positive effect in their economic participation of any developed and developing countries. Indian history is full of instances about individual entrepreneurs whose creativity has led to industrialization and globalization of many nations in the world. Surprisingly, research studies on women entrepreneurship found that women entrepreneurs are the key players in any developing country, particularly in terms of contribution to economic sustenance and development (Baker, Aldrich & Liou, 1997). Research on the differences between men and women indicated that there are significant differences in their career choices, and theoretical models which described the career paths of men are not entirely appropriate for women (Neergard et al., 2005; Gupta et al, 2008). These literatures signified that women's role in economic development and also the differences in terms of career paths which may be due to the perceptional aspects with respect to gender differences. It is very evident from the above literatures that women entrepreneurship could not be generalized with gender as it differs in terms of its perspective. Moreover, the concept and practices of women entrepreneurship are in the burgeoning stage with regard to many developing countries across the world. A thorough literature review which has been carried out in the present study could possibly explain the gaps in terms of perceptions about entrepreneurial process amongst women entrepreneur and also exhibit new paradigms which could foster the growth of women entrepreneurship development.

Review on Women Entrepreneurship

A longitudinal study conducted by Gatewood, Shaver, and Gartner (1994) found female entrepreneurs have higher internal attributions for starting their ventures than males. In another study conducted by James and Paul (1979) on 122 Black, White, Hispanic and American Indian women entrepreneurs found that the responses of both minority women entrepreneurs and those women entrepreneurs in the general populace differed significantly on tests measuring achievement, autonomy, aggression, conformity, independence, benevolence, and leadership. Hisrich and Marie (1981) in an in-depth study tried to find out the demographic characteristics, their motivation and business problems of 21 women entrepreneurs. It was reported that majority of them were first born in their family, married (71%), had at least two children (55%) and between 31 -41 years old (48%). In addition to that 38% of the respondents' fathers were self-employed and more than 50% of their mothers also worked outside the home. Research studies conducted by Roomi and Parrot (2008) indicated that there are barriers to development and progression of female entrepreneurs, resulting in limited spatial mobility and a dearth of social capital for female entrepreneurs. Early studies exploring why females become entrepreneurs found they gave similar responses to their male counterparts such as need to achieve and independence (Cook 1982; Schwartz, 1976). Another study reports that no differences exist with women entrepreneurs in comparison with men regarding personal goals such as independence, achievement, and economic necessity (Hisrich, Brush, Good, & De Souza, 1996). Fagenson (1993) discovered that female entrepreneurs had a much broader vision involving their desires including total equality and world peace. Women entrepreneurs in Turkey have problems in various common problems like social and cultural surroundings, difficulties in finance, insufficient education and too much burden as family responsibilities at home. It is observed that the most women entrepreneurs focused on service sector because of their education, managerial experience and risk tolerance. Special attention is given here to theoretical and empirical literature of the gender discrimination in Turkey where traditional and cultural beliefs are still widespread and impact on labour force participation rates and entrepreneurship (Meltem, 2009)

A empirical study conducted by Hisrich & Brush (1986) found that the typical woman entrepreneur was the first born; hailed from a middle or upper class family; had a self-employed father'; held a college degree; was married; had children; started their significant entrepreneurial career between the ages of 40 45; had previous experience in the venture; and were independent, also it was found that achievement and job satisfaction were the strongest motivational factors to starting their own business. Women see entrepreneurship as a way of achieving a better balance between work and family than that provided by paid employment (Kirkwood and Tootell, 2008). It was Hisrich and Brush (1980) who found education was important not only for the women entrepreneurs but also for their parents, particularly their fathers, who were reported to be more highly educated than the general populace. Women entrepreneurs also tended to marry more highly educated men. The importance of education was reflected in the following comment of a woman entrepreneur: "In my family, education was very important. My mother was a dentist in a day when most women did not even graduate from high school. But it was my father who was my real innovator". In a South Asian study in Pakistan, Roomi and Parrot (2008) found that women entrepreneurs do not enjoy the same opportunities as men due to a number of deep-rooted discriminatory socio-cultural values and traditions. There are often barriers to the road of entrepreneurship for females, for example, lack of access to capital, business premises, information technology, training, agency assistance, and also social networks (Klyver and Terjesen, 2007; Hwang et al, 2008). In these lines one study conducted previously by Anwar (1992) at Bangcladesh tried to project the characteristics of the activities managed by the women entrepreneurs. He observed that the constraints of social norms prevailing there have prevented the women entrepreneurs to manage their business independently. Those norms have restricted their mobility and thereby affected interaction with others, particularly for obtaining accurate information for business operation; besides these there is also a gap in availing of the training opportunities for skill formation. This is again supported by a study conducted by Anna (1990) stated that entrepreneurs generally hail from communities, which have been traditionally practicing entrepreneurial activities thus, imbibing the entrepreneurial qualities. A study conducted by Ganesan et. al. (2002) on problems and prospects of women entrepreneurs revealed that system model for entrepreneurship based on 4Es (Entrepreneur Entrepreneurship--Enterprise--Environment) with other related and facilitative factors to emancipate women entrepreneurship development. Yet another study by Ganesan et.al (2002) revealed, role-conflict, training methodology and andro-centrism are the problems faced by women entrepreneurs in food processing enterprises, which curtail their entrepreneurial prospects to become vibrant entrepreneurs. Research study conducted on Latin America and in other regions by National Foundation for Women Business Owners (1998) internationally, revealed that women business owners have many things in common regardless of nationality and share common personal characteristics, are similar in many ways in the lines of business they pursue, and they encounter similar issues and challenges while starting and growing their businesses.

Global Women Entrepreneurship

Global women entrepreneurship obstacles are categorized into three: balancing family responsibilities (Buttner and Moore, 1997; Caputo and Dolinsky, 1998); work-family balance (Kirkwood and Tootell, 2008); and unemployment (Verheul et at., 2006). However, research found that female entrepreneurs face more obstacles and barriers than male entrepreneurs encounter (Morris et al., 2006; Roomi and Parrot, 2008). Research into the field of women entrepreneurs has yet to be integrated into the field of entrepreneurship research and as such women entrepreneurship has to be recognized as distinct field or sub-field of research (Holmquist, 1997). Studies carried out on need for achievement (n-Ach; McClelland (1961)) and internal locus of control by McClelland (1962) and that by Timmons (1978) exhibited variations within the locus of control framework for women, were not studied including the socio-background and psychosocial influences on psycho-entrepreneurial influences. However, those focused much on the measures of individually. Some studies have reported that internal locus of control characteristic of an entrepreneur is an important characteristic of entrepreneurs (Pareek, 1981). Similarly, those with higher perceptions about the future are more conscientious in their work behaviour, and those with high perceptions of achievements always have the self-confidence and will power to excel at any pressure and to run the enterprise effectively (Rathore & Chabbra, 1991). Bilesanmi and Kalesanmo in their study on Nigerian women entrepreneurs suggested more females should be encouraged to study Science and Technology in schools and colleges. They also argued that, they could gain access to know-how, technologies, appropriate and adequate skills, training to upgrade their technical capabilities, and their entrepreneurial and business skills whether in artisan production or in high-tech industries (Bilesanmi & Kalesanwo, 2009). A research study at Cambodia found majority of the actors working in Medium and Small Enterprises (MSEs) have been found to be women, who act as owners, entrepreneurs and managers, as well as employees, home-workers and unpaid family labour (Corner, 1998). In recent years, United States and Canada has the increasing role of women into enterprising activities constituting one-third of the small business owned in USA and Canada. As far as the workforce is concerned Britain has seen an increase of over three times that of men. This is well proven in a research study into entrepreneurship which revealed that female entrepreneurs want work that is challenging and have growth orientation (Morris et al., 2006). These literatures provided the global scenario of women entrepreneurs. In addition to that psychological dimensions do play a significant role in understanding the growth of women entrepreneurship. The literature showed women entrepreneurs in developed countries are far beyond with progression and economic participation and it is more so in case of developing countries. A study conducted on Latin American and Carribean women business owners indicated economic activity rate in case of adult women is as high as 40 percent or more in major Latin American countries. Even a survey by United Nations (1995) revealed only lack of access to capital and technology, which is surprising to note that entrepreneurial characteristics and attributes are not indicated as crucial parameters in westernized countries. The study revealed that 34 percent of Latin-American women over 15 years of age are economically active, compared to over 50 percent of the developed countries. Yet another study conducted on these lines by Savadi (2001) in India explained that women entrepreneurs account for 10 percent in the unorganized sectors and about 9 percent in the small-scale industry (organized sector) comparison with other developing countries and developed countries. The reason for comparing Latin-American countries is because of certain Latin-American countries which do have similar economies to that of India and according to Jalbert (2000) most of the available literature on women's business ownership has concentrated on entrepreneurial development in industrialized countries at the national level and within the less developed formal sector. Only few literatures are available on the roles of women entrepreneurs in the global economy. It is essential to categorize woman entrepreneurship, where women-owned businesses employ more than 15 million workers in the United States and the sales generated amount to approximately $1.4 trillion (Nelton, 1996).

Surprisingly, research studies conducted by Parker (2007) indicated women in restricted cultures revealed more authentic information on their functions and entrepreneurial activities. For instance, women in middle-east control much of wealth in the country and thus women entrepreneurs have access to informal funding. Saudi women as a whole own estimated cash funds of Saudi Riyal 45 billion, of which "75% is sitting idle in bank deposits". Some Saudi women participate in entrepreneurial efforts through their families and they own some 40% of family run companies, very often as silent partners. Moreover, Saudi women constituted about 4% percent of the total registered businesses in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia with 5,500 commercial registrations of women's projects, representing 20% of the business in the retail, contracting, wholesale and transferable industries sectors. Although, women in Saudi Arabia hold a lot of wealth but still technically, the registration process for a new business enterprise is the same whether the business is owned by a man or a woman. The only regulation imposed on women owned businesses is to have all women staff in designated women's section with separate entry and exit doors; and a male supervisor in the men's section (Parker, 2007). Research studies conducted by Minkus-McKenna (2009) revealed that entrepreneurism does exist among women in Saudi Arabia. In addition to that she found that these women suffer similar type of problems as that of entrepreneurs around the world in general. She also revealed that it is the local government and religious tradition in Saudi Arabia act as major barriers in particular and in her study she suggested that issue of developing entrepreneurship among women in Saudi Arabia is a massive problem which extends beyond business factors. The culture and religion are the pre-dominant factors which are to be considered as critical factors in this environment. Yet another study conducted by Ba-lsa (2007) indicated that in today's context, education has been mandatory for females and women make up 58% of university students but "one of the biggest issue facing women in business in Saudi Arabia - the lack of support from other women (Balsa, 2007).

Psychological Dimensions in Women Entrepreneurship

The most relevant theory of motivation for entrepreneurship development was explained by McClelland (1961; 1962) in which, he focused on life experience, set of motives and behaviour. According to this theory, there are three types of needs which have an important role to play towards the origin of entrepreneurship. They are need for achievement, power and affiliation, and these have to be continuous, throughout one's life for personal and entrepreneurial growth. Besides these aspects, social learning theory (Rotter, 1966; and Rotter, Chance and Phares, 1972) and achievement motivation theory (McClelland, 1961 and 1962; Winter, 1969) personality theories are also considered as important for entrepreneurial growth. Locus of control is considered to be a part of the conscientiousness factor as it relates to job performance behaviors regarding dependability and responsibility (Lefcourt, 1992; Black, 1990).

The above theories and postulates had supported many contemporary researches on entrepreneurship in determining entrepreneurial capabilities of entrepreneurs in terms of need, motivation, achievement, and perception and in turn had given dimensions and inclinations to entrepreneurship development. It is observed from the psychological dimensions that perception is again an offshoot of motivation, which enhances possibilities of entry and at the same time, prevents them in terms of performance for their entrepreneurial choices.

Need & Relevance of the Study

A central focus of literature revealed motivation is needed for women to enter and develop their own enterprises. However, literature reviews conducted in lieu with the present research study emphasized more on need for a research on causational factors accounting for woman entrepreneurs' development through perceptional aspects. Also, it is more apparent for any entrepreneur to bring an entrepreneurial growth in his/her enterprise through developing the desired entrepreneurial personality traits through altering individual personality traits. A research study revealed that women are starting businesses at a rate twice that of men (Allen, 1999). The effects of social variables, like education, experience, family could confound the output leading to poor entrepreneurial success (Chattopadhyay and Ghosh, 2002). This leads to understanding about an individual, who believe that outcome was due to their skill and that the situation can be controlled, might exhibit better enterprising behaviour. To the contrary, individuals who believe that situation cannot be controlled and outcome was due to chance variables could not attribute to entrepreneurial success. Subsequently, individuals falling under the latter category might not be able to prepare themselves for uncontrolled situations, as they saw no relationship between their response and reward. A study conducted by (Ulrich, 2009) revealed that education and development of entrepreneurially-minded individuals is a vital element of entrepreneurship development which should not be overlooked. Although, such individuals may never become entrepreneurs, there is a chance that they may be molded through inducing entrepreneurial education which involves enhancing one's ability to: think critically & entrepreneurially; be receptive to change; and more importantly, understand the entrepreneurial process. It is quite interesting that studies conducted out on need for achievement (n-Ach; McClelland (1961)) and internal locus of control by McClelland (1962) and that by Timmons (1978) focused on the variations within locus of control framework for women and not studied relationships including socio-background, psychosocial and psycho-entrepreneurial influences. Moreover, those studies focused much on the measures individually. Some studies have reported that internal locus of control characteristic of an entrepreneur is an important characteristic of entrepreneurs (Pareek, 1981). Similarly, studies on perceptions found that those with higher perceptions about the future are more conscientious in their work behaviour, and those with high perceptions of achievements always have self-confidence and will power to excel at any pressure and to run the enterprise effectively (Rathore & Chabbra, 1991). These studies explained the paucity of research in the area which left no tangible and imperative picture in attending these issues that are highly needed and to be addressed carefully through inculcation of crucial aspects towards gearing women entrepreneurship. Research on women entrepreneurship and their contribution and relationships with socio-background were woefully inadequate, more so with reference to developing countries like India (Singh, 1993). Thus, the paper signified on the perceptional aspects of women entrepreneurs into food processing enterprises using three dimensional approaches using transitional relationships between entrepreneurial background, psychosocial and psycho-entrepreneurial perceptions shall provide the possibilities for effective emergence of women to be entrepreneurs in future.

Objectives of the Study

> To identify the transitional relationships using selective entrepreneurial background, psychosocial and psycho-entrepreneurial variables that are causational to women entrepreneurship development

> To explore the relationships amongst different psychosocial and psycho-entrepreneurial variables

> To derive an analytical equation using three dimensional variables for women entrepreneurship development

Method of Study

The methods of study which has been adopted for the present research are as follows:

Selection of the Area

Keeping the exploratory nature of the present study, two non-governmental organizations (MOOWES & AWAKE), having common objectives in women empowerment through entrepreneurship training and marketing were selected. The list of registered women entrepreneurs exclusively in to food processing enterprises were taken for the present study.

Profile of the Study Area

A. MOOWES

Marketing Organization of Women Entrepreneurs (MOOWES) was founded in 1990 with 12 members at Chennai. Activities of this organization included firstly, sharing their views and the difficulties while running their enterprises by forming networks amongst the women entrepreneurs, secondly, assisting women in the field of marketing by face-to-face contacts with the customers and thereby gaining confidence within the women entrepreneurs, and lastly, conducting periodic training programmes for women on various aspects required for running a business successfully and develop their entrepreneurial skills.

B. AWAKE

Association for Women Entrepreneurs of Karnataka (AWAKE) is a nongovernmental organization founded in December 1983 comprising 500 members at Bangalore with an aim to empower women economically through entrepreneurship development. The activities of this organization primarily included the following: counseling, entrepreneurship awareness programmes (EAP), entrepreneurship development programmes (EDP), trainers training programme (TTP), development agency/non-governmental organizational sensitization programmes and follow-up programmes.

Sampling

The samples for the present study have been taken from the above mentioned non-governmental organization. Those who were willfully agreed to participate in the present study have been included based on convenient sampling method.

Sample Size

A total of 32 female entrepreneurs out of 115 entrepreneurs into food processing enterprising activity have been taken for the research study. Moreover, women entrepreneurs in food processing enterprises (running enterprises in preparation of jams, jellies, pickles, papads, squashes, and bakeries) were taken for the present study. The sample size equi-numerically divided from two metropolitan cities namely Chennai (N=16) and Bangalore (N=16). Secondary information pertaining to the present study were also obtained from the two nongovernmental organizations in Chennai and Bangalore named MOOWES (Marketing Organization of Women Entrepreneurs) and AWAKE (Association for Women Entrepreneurs of Karnataka) working for women entrepreneurship development in India. Keeping in view the nature of the study, survey research method and purposive random sampling technique has been adopted for the study to obtain required datum.

Research Method & Design

Keeping the nature of the study, descriptive research method and survey research design have been adopted for the entire study.

Hypotheses

In order to meet the objectives, exploratory hypotheses were drawn in the present research study:

Hypothesis 1

There will be significant correlation between selective psychosocial and psycho-entrepreneurial variables (Locus of control (LOCP), conceptual understanding of entrepreneurship (COUE) and entrepreneurship awareness and know-how skills (EAKS)) with selective entrepreneurial background variables.

Hypothesis 2

Perceived ladder of success at present (PLASPR) and success rate at present (SUP) will show relationships with different psychosocial and psycho-entrepreneurial variables.

Hypothesis 3

Perceived ladder of success previous (PLASPV) and entrepreneurial expectations about the future (EEF) will show significant relationship with different psychosocial and psycho-entrepreneurial variables.

Operational Definitions

A. Locus of Control (LOCP): Locus of control is a learned behaviour where in which the individuals attribute responsibility for events or to factors within themselves and within their control or to factors outside their control Rotter (1954; 1960 and 1972).

R. Gonesan

B. Conceptual understanding of entrepreneurship (CODE): Conceptual understanding of entrepreneurship in the present study has been defined as the level of understanding of basic qualities needed for entrepreneurship, more precisely the personality traits in entrepreneurship for performing an entrepreneurial activity or the entrepreneurial pre-requisites essential for an individual in emerging as an entrepreneur.

C. Entrepreneurial Awareness & Know-how Skills (EAKS): Entrepreneurship awareness & technical know-how skills refer to basic management skills (entrepreneurial pre-requisite awareness: marketing, training, human resource and finance) and technical know-how refers to technical awareness (preservation: food processing).

Variables & Tools

a. Independent Variables

Entrepreneurial Background Variables (EBV): It included, Age of the entrepreneur (AGE), Educational Qualification (EDQ), Family Income (FIN), Previous Occupational Activity, (POCA), Enterprising Experience (ENE), Memberships in Association (MIA), Place of Enterprise (POE), Entrepreneurship Development Training (EDT), Father's Present Occupation (FOPRE), and Father's Previous Occupation (FOPVS)

b. Test Variables

Psychosocial Variables (PV): It comprised of Locus of Control Perceptions (LOCP), Perceived Ladder of Success Previous (PLASPV), Perceived Ladder of Success at Present (PLASPR), Entrepreneurial Expectations about the Future (EEF), and Success Rate at Present (SUR).

Psycho-entrepreneurial variables (PEV): It included Conceptual Understanding of Entrepreneurship (COUE) and Entrepreneurship Awareness & Know-how Skills (EAKS) respectively.

c. Data Classification

The primary data collection has been carried out through a structured questionnaire based on survey method. It comprised of variables needed for the study to achieve its objectives. On the other hand, the secondary research data collection has been carried out through previous research studies which comprised of thesis, dissertation, journals, compendiums, periodicals, monographs etc. to substantiate primary data sources.

Primary Data

Primary data have been collected through administering a structured questionnaire comprising of three parts: 1) entrepreneurial background (Age of the entrepreneur (AGE), Educational Qualification (EDQ), Family Income (FIN), Previous Occupational Activity, (POCA), Enterprising Experience (ENE), Memberships in Association (MIA), Place of Enterprise (POE), Entrepreneurship Development Training (EDT)), Father's Present Occupation (FOPRE), and Father's Previous Occupation (FOPVS), and 2). psychosocial perceptions (Locus of Control Perceptions (LOCP), Perceived Ladder of Success Previous (PLASPV), Perceived Ladder of Success at Present (PLASPR), Entrepreneurial Expectations about the Future (EEF), and Success Rate at Present (SUP) and 3) psycho-entrepreneurial perception (Conceptual Understanding of Entrepreneurship (COUE) and Entrepreneurship Awareness & Know-how Skills (EAKS)) respectively.

Secondary Data

The researcher gathered data, collated published studies from different local and foreign universities, articles from books and journals; compendiums and proceedings of conferences and seminars, research monographs and reports and will make a content analysis of the collected documentary material. In addition to that, researcher concatenated and summarized all the pertinent information whichever, mandatory to substantiate the hypotheses posited and also derived appropriate recommendations for future researchers into women entrepreneurship research.

Scales & Reliability

Keeping in view, the nature of present exploratory study, three categories of variables were selected, i.e., socio-background, psychosocial and psycho-entrepreneurial. The scales were standardized, modified, scored and coded according to requirements of the present study.

Locus of Control (LOCP): Locus of Control scale by Rao (1985), consisting of 20 paired statements (inventory) has been selected and revised according to the nature of the present study with 10 inventories were used. High score (greater than 3.0) indicated that entrepreneurs are more inclined towards internality. Low score (less than 1.0) indicated that entrepreneurs were more inclined towards externality and medium score (1.0-3.0) indicates that entrepreneurs tending towards internality (i.e., they will be internal with time; range (< 1.0 - > 3.0). The scale had a high reliability coefficient of 0.89 (Ganesan & Sujata, 2002). Entrepreneurial Expectations about the Future (EEF): Self-devised scale ranging from very bright [left arrow] [right arrow] uncertain wherein, respondent rated their expectations of their enterprise, since its inception (range 1-4).

Perceived Ladder of Success At Present (PLASPR): There were ten steps in the perceived ladder of success in which the respondent rated their present success (step 1-step 10 in accordance with the present).

Perceived Ladder of Success Previous (PLASPV): There were ten steps in the perceived ladder of success in which the respondent rated their previous success (step 1-step 10 in accordance with the past).

Success Rate at Present (SUP): Self-devised scale ranging from 10 [left arrow] [right arrow] 100 percent wherein the respondent rated the present success of their enterprise.

Psycho-entrepreneurial Variables

Entrepreneurial Awareness & Know-how Skills (EAKS): Entrepreneurial awareness & know-how skills (EAKS) and conceptual understanding of entrepreneurship (COUE) have been included in the present study.

Conceptual Understanding of Entrepreneurship (COUE): Conceptual understanding of entrepreneurship comprises of structured questionnaire pertaining to entrepreneurial qualities which has been modified from a training manual (training programme in entrepreneurship, developed by Entrepreneurship Development Institute of India, Ahmedabad in collaboration with Entrepreneurship Development Cell, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi (1988)), which consisted of 11 questions modified and devised by the researcher according to the requirements of the present study by the researcher with appropriate five responses on five-point scale. The higher the score indicates that higher conceptual understanding. The highest score is '5' and lowest score is 'V against each response has been recorded. The total part consists of eleven questions the maximum score being '55' and minimum score being '1 V (range 11 -55), which indicated, higher the score better the conceptual understanding of entrepreneurship. The split-half reliability of this scale was 0.08 (Ganesan & Sujata, 2002).

Statistical Tools & Techniques

The data thus obtained have been were coded and scored. Pearson's correlation co-efficient V has been analyzed and interpreted using statistical package for social sciences (SPSS 16.0v).

Results

Table-1 indicated the correlations between entrepreneurial background variables and psychosocial and psycho-entrepreneurial variables. It has been inferred from the table that only age of entrepreneur, place of enterprise, family income, memberships in association, entrepreneurship development training, fathers' previous income have showed correlations.

Locus of control perceptions of women entrepreneurs correlated significantly with age of the entrepreneur (r = 0.410, p < 0.05), and entrepreneurship development training (r = 0.368, p < 0.05). This showed that an increase in age of the entrepreneur enhanced the internal locus of control perception of women entrepreneurs. Thus, elderly women were more internal in their control perceptions than others. Another finding, was internal locus of control perception were higher for women entrepreneurs who had undergone entrepreneurship and technical training. These above correlations pertaining to the variables may be due to their past training aspects and age wise experiences, which they imbibed in running their enterprises.

Conceptual understanding of entrepreneurship of women entrepreneurs correlated significantly and inversely with family income (r = - 0.374, p < 0.05) and membership in associations (r = - 0.541, p < 0.01). Thus, it was revealed from the above table that higher was the conceptual understanding of entrepreneurship lower was family income. Interestingly, the finding also revealed that entrepreneurs having memberships in associations have low conceptual understanding, which implied memberships in associations have not been fully facilitating their understanding of entrepreneurship or rather they have opted to attain those memberships after the inception of their start-ups. Moreover, lower family income compelled their economic participation hence, had higher conceptual understanding to entrepreneurship.

Entrepreneurship awareness and know-how skills of women entrepreneurs correlated significantly and inversely with father's present occupation (r = 0.373, p < 0.05). This indicated higher was the entrepreneurship awareness and know-how skills lower was their father's occupation. This may be due to the fact that less income out of the present occupation of their father's made them to be entrepreneurs. Hence, it showed negative correlation with each other. Perceived ladder of success at present correlated significantly with entrepreneurship development training (r = 0.353, p < 0.05). This implied that those who perceived their success ladder at a higher level have undergone entrepreneurship development training which implied training increased their perception of success. Hence, they displace themselves in higher steps.

Entrepreneurial expectations about future correlated significantly and inversely with family income (r = - 0.478, p < 0.01), membership in associations (r = - 0.478, p < 0.01), entrepreneurship development training (r = - 0.478, p < 0.01) and father's present occupation (r = - 0.361, p < 0.05). This meant that higher entrepreneurial expectations was associated with lower family income, less number of membership in associations, no entrepreneurship and technical training and no occupation of the father at present. There was a positive correlation between women's entrepreneurial expectations and place of enterprise (r = 0.626, p < 0.01), which indicated that people from Bangalore metropolitan city had higher entrepreneurial expectations about the future. This may be mainly due to the fact that before inception of their enterprise they were hailing from low family income, having undergone entrepreneurship development training with their low income of their father's perceived higher entrepreneurial expectations of their future. Those having memberships in associations might have an exposure about advancements in their enterprising activities hence, having low expectations about the future. Surprisingly, educational qualification, enterprising experience, father's present occupation, previous occupational activity, perceived ladder of success previous and success rate at present have not showed any correlations. Thus, the hypothesis (1), there will be significant correlation between selective psychosocial and psycho-entrepreneurial variables (Locus of control (LOCP) with age of the entrepreneur (AGE), conceptual understanding of entrepreneurship (COUE) with memberships in associations (MIA) and entrepreneurship awareness and know-how skills (EAKS) with fathers' present occupation (FOPRE)) with selective entrepreneurial background variables has been accepted.

Table-2 inferred that locus of control perceptions, and entrepreneurship and know-how skills had no relationships with any other psychosocial and psycho-entrepreneurial variables. Interestingly, conceptual understanding of entrepreneurship correlated significantly and inversely with perceived ladder of success at present (r = -0.420, p < 0.05), which indicated that women with low conceptual understanding of entrepreneurship perceived their ladder of success towards the bottom of the ladder. Perceived ladder of success at present correlated significantly and inversely with entrepreneurial expectations about the future (r = -0.516, p < 0.01). This indicated that those who perceived their present ladder of success at a higher level had higher entrepreneurial expectations about future. In addition to that, perceived ladder of success at present correlated positively and significantly with perceived ladder of success previous (r = 0.874; p < 0.01) and success rate at present (r = 0.617; p < 0.01). This further implied that respondent's previous perception about ladder of success and success rate at present has been measured exactly in accordance with their functioning of enterprises. Moreover, perceived ladder of success previous correlated significantly and positively with success rate at present (r = 0.593; p < 0.01) which revealed respondent's were exact in measuring their steps in accordance with their success rate of their enterprise. Thus, hypothesis (2), perceived ladder of success at present ((PLASPR) showed correlations with conceptual understanding of entrepreneurship (COUP), perceived ladder of success at previous (PLASPV), success rate at present (SUP) and entrepreneurial expectations about the future (EEF)) and success rate at present ((SUP) showed correlations with perceived ladder of success at present (PLASPR) and perceived ladder of success previous (PLASPV)) showed relationships with different psychosocial and psycho-entrepreneurial variables. Also, hypothesis (3), perceived ladder of success previous ((PLASPV) and entrepreneurial expectations about the future (EEF)) showed correlations with perceived ladder of success at present (PLASPR) showed correlations with different psychosocial and psycho-entrepreneurial variables.

Discussions

The findings revealed that locus of control had significant positive correlation with age and entrepreneurial development training. This indicated that an increase in age and entrepreneurship and technical training of women entrepreneurs also increased their internal perception of locus of control. This finding could be explained in terms of social maturity and its relationship with age, stress perception and coping styles. With age persons' social maturity and experience increased tremendously hence, her appraisal of a problem, coping mechanisms and perception of social support became more refined. This could directly have an impact on her ability to manipulate events in her favour thus, changing her perception of events in terms of controllability or uncontrollability. However, the role of age in locus of control was not significant, in the study conducted by Box, Watts and Hisrich (1994) which attributed to factors like sample characteristics, particularly the age and size of the sample. In the present study it showed significance which may be due to the fact that higher the age leads to the understanding of responsibilities to factors which are controllable and uncontrollable than in less age. This could be again substantiated in terms of social maturity with age and experience in running their enterprises. A study conducted by Ganesan et. al. (2003) on women entrepreneurs revealed that age had significant positive correlation with locus of control and further showed positive correlation with success rate. This facilitated the finding of age showing relationships with locus of control in the present study. Also, the finding of internal locus of control among women who possess entrepreneurship development training was quite expected. Training programme in this area generally included components on important psychological processes operating in entrepreneurial behaviour and performance. In addition to that, it included components related to entrepreneurial activities such as marketing, finance, demand, supply etc. Social contacts, and role model impact, etc., also have increased significantly during training programmes. Thus, these factors might have a positive effect on an entrepreneur's feeling of things under their control or not, hence, positively affected the internal perception of control. In this line of finding perception of ladder of success at present also increased with entrepreneurial and technical training, which suggested that training them to rate their current status in the field more accurately.

The results revealed that women having lower family income showed significant and inverse correlation with family income, which implied that women had more clarity about principles of entrepreneurship. This finding was very encouraging for women belonging to lower socio-economic strata of the Indian society, both for their status upliftment and for the growth of Indian developing economy. Moreover, studies conducted by Chowdhary (1982) reported a positive correlation between caste and adoption behaviour in technology innovation. This implied that women belonging to lower economic strata have always been deprived of economic activities due to prevalence of caste system. However, they are ambitious to exemplify themselves in par with women belonging to higher caste and economic strata respectively. Hence, women from this section of the society are economically compelled they have initiated startups for money, recognition, and self-satisfaction. This means that they had already broken the existing social norms and pattern of societal systems by coming out from their homes to participate in the entrepreneurial activities. Hence, they had less inhibition to face family as well as social role conflict. They had started recognizing their abilities and behaviour followed by believing in self, which perhaps fostered their internal perceptions of control. Similarly, this might also have affected their conceptual understanding, as being the beginners they had faced all obstacles but still continued to stand by with their determination to run the enterprise. The number of problems they faced and difficulty to solve them perhaps enhanced their conceptual understanding of entrepreneurship.

The finding of entrepreneurial expectations about future correlated significantly and inversely with family income exhibits the scenario of Indian economy and Indian women struggling for their entrepreneurial identity. Higher the expectations lower was their family income. As women from lower income strata primarily focused on, profit and income, their entrepreneurial expectations are often corresponded with that and hence they expected high about their future as their needs got increased. This finding facilitated other similar findings of this study, which showed that women who had better entrepreneurial development training and higher entrepreneurial expectations had fathers' without any occupation. This could also be explained on the fact that those whose entrepreneurial expectations about the future are higher are the one's who were initially deprived initially towards entering their enterprises because of their poor economic status due to their father's insufficient income. As their fathers had no occupation even a small success or income were considered by them as more prominent and relevant for their growth, hence their expectations about future is not high and focused on their present situation of their enterprises. This finding is supported by social comparison theory of Festinger (1954). According to this theory people made socially comparable evaluations with the people around them and if they were in a better position they made positive impression about themselves. This could affect their self-esteem, self-concept, and expectations, and perceptions about themselves. This probably happened with these women whose father had no occupation. Thus, they perceived their success more positively and similarly expected higher returns from their future enterprising activities. Festinger (1954) explained comparisons with people relatively similar to one self (lateral or parallel comparisons) were specially desired. However, social comparisons could also be directed upward with partner's superior to oneself and downwards with inferior targets (Wills, 1981; Wood. 1989). However, upward comparisons with those more advanced in desired aspects of life could motivate the person to strive for developmental growth. The downward comparisons with those, less advanced (were, father of women entrepreneurs) could help to protect self-esteem and to target higher expectations from oneself. Interestingly, the combinations of both upward and downward comparisons were operating on women entrepreneurs. The finding though was partially obvious, but still needed to be explored on other similar kind of studies.

Women who had higher entrepreneurial expectations possessed less number of associations in professional bodies and less entrepreneurship development training related to their work. This was quite interesting, and some-how predictable as perhaps they had less knowledge, and awareness about the current status of their enterprises (which certainly could be modified during such professional bodies' interactions). Hence, their expectations were based more on their need fulfillment rather than on the basis of real scenario of market, demand and supply ratio etc. Woman's entrepreneurial expectation about future had positive correlations with place of enterprise. This implied that entrepreneurial expectations about future increased with urbanization of the place e.g., the entrepreneurial potentialities of a metropolitan city. Perhaps, in a more advanced metropolitan city factors such as: availability of resources, ease in marketing, abundant consumers, ease of transport, surplus financial support, training programmes on technical skill development, and other avenues of entrepreneurship, etc. might have induced them to expect more from their work. Above all, women status itself could be a major factor in more advanced metro cities, which might have affected women's expectations from themselves in terms of achievement and thereby from their entrepreneurial venture. This finding can also be explained through McClelland's theory of need for achievement (1961). McClelland suggested that, entrepreneurs had high 'need for achievement' in general. This theory could be further extended to the extent that when resources (infrastructure, raw material, transport, market, finance, social, etc.) were more accessible and easily approachable, need for achievement could be stronger, hence, in the present study place of enterprise correlated positively with perceptions of achievement and expectations about future. Moreover, accomplishment of need is entirely based on accessibility of resources directly or indirectly. For instance, female start-ups require accessibility of information which becomes the fundamental resource and fulfills to achieve their need in becoming an actor and run their start-ups effectively. The results of the present study signified by another study by Devi and Latha (2000), which pointed that product related problems of the food processing industries were power-cut, non-availability of raw materials, high raw material price, labour, unbranded product in market, poor packaging materials, etc., which perhaps were not so acute in technologically more advanced metro cities.

Results also indicated that significant correlations existed amongst psychosocial & psycho-entrepreneurial variables. It was found that perceived ladder of success at present, correlated significantly and positively with previous perceived ladder of success, success rate at present. It also correlated significantly and negatively with conceptual understanding of entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial expectations about the future. Entrepreneurship awareness and know-how skills and locus of control perceptions have not showed any correlations. The results of the present study revealed an increase in the conceptual understanding decreased women's perception of present ladder of success seemed to be a realistic finding. Once, women understood the entrepreneurship, it helps them to evaluate themselves to be more practical and realistic. Inflated evaluations could also be decreased and judgment of their present position fostered them to come down on the ladder in a pragmatic way. This finding was again supplemented by the finding of more conceptual understanding went in line with less entrepreneurial expectations. This in turn could help them to strive more strongly for the personal as well as entrepreneurial growth. Based on the results and discussion an analytical approach in the form of equation has been framed for an appropriate understanding of bringing in women empowerment through women entrepreneurship development.

Analytical Approach for Economic Empowerment through Women Entrepreneurship Development

The nation's economic empowerment could be attained through nurturing women's participation into entrepreneurship development activities. This could be possible through adopting an appropriate training methodology focusing on perceptional aspects to overcome their internal barriers. In the present study, this has been analytically viewed and analytical equation has been derived using various transitional variables (causational factors) that exhibited relationships with other variables, i.e., Entrepreneurship Background, Psychosocial and Psycho-entrepreneurial Perceptions respectively. It has been projected that nation's economic empowerment is a function of entrepreneurial background with adequate psychosocial and psycho-entrepreneurial perceptions. This in turn could increase the possibilities of women's participation through an economic (self-employed) or entrepreneurial (business ownership) activity respectively. Thus, analytical equation presented in this study categorically projected the three-dimensional transitional relationship which is indicated below:

Analytical Equation:--[NEE.sub.t] = [WE.sub.p]D (Women Entrepreneurship Development)

[WE.sub.p]D = f (Entrepreneurial Background (Psychosocial Perceptions + Psycho-entrepreneurial Perceptions))

Entrepreneurs Background (Socio-Economic Profile) = EB

Psycho-entrepreneurial Perceptions = [PEP.sub.per] = (COUE+ EAKS)

Psychosocial Perceptions = [PP.sub.per]= (LOCP + EEF+ PLASPV+ PLASPR+SUP)

[WE.sub.p]D = f(EB ((COUE+ EAKS) + (LOCP+ EEF+ PLASPV+ PLASPR+ SUP)))

[WE.sub.p]D = f(EB [(PE[P.sub.per]) + (P[P.sub.per])])

Where,

f--Function of Variables

[NEE.sub.t]--Nations Economic Empowerment

[WE.sub.p]D--Women Entrepreneurship (Projected) Development

COUE--Conceptual Understanding of Entrepreneurship

EAKS--Entrepreneurship Awareness & Know-how Skills

LOCP--Locus of Control Perceptions

EEF--Entrepreneurial Expectations Future

PLASPV--Perceived Ladder of Success Previous

PLASPR--Perceived Present Ladder of Success at Present

SUP--Success Rate at Present

Suggestions & Conclusions

Entrepreneurship development training for women should focus mainly on tuning their perceptions and have to motivate them to take up entrepreneurship as their career. Results in the present study signified on categorization of entrepreneurial training which has to be considered conscientiously whilst inducting and implementation of women entrepreneurship development programmes. This will emancipate women's understanding of entrepreneurial process. The results of research study provided a rationale for the need to understand causational factors required for fostering women entrepreneurship. It also emphasized on effective entrepreneurial training methods indispensable for women entrepreneurship through their perception, which in turn intuited them towards a positive transition in their entrepreneurial activities. The study provided the possibilities for economic empowerment of women through entrepreneurial perceptions in a three dimensional analytical approach using entrepreneurial background, psychosocial and psycho-entrepreneurial perceptions. The findings of this study may benefit nascent women and trigger their motivation to participate in an entrepreneurial activity. Future researchers shall attempt to improve the analytical equation by appending more entrepreneurial background, psychosocial, and psycho-entrepreneurial variables in order to gain prospective results. Also, the study could be extended to a broader audience by increasing the sample size by having more samples of women entrepreneurs across other developed and developing countries for a prospective cross-cultural comparison. Hence, the study cannot be generalized in totality with regard to its findings. The academicians, scholars, scientists, facilitators and trainers in the field of entrepreneurship may conduct similar studies to understand the overall gamut of women's entrepreneurial perspective and provide entrepreneurial framework. Similar studies may be conducted over male counterparts towards a better understanding of their causational factors in the sphere of entrepreneurship development. The study may be carried out on other enterprising domains so as to measure and compare their entrepreneurial prospects. The policy makers and bureaucrats in statute bodies and nodal agencies shall make an attempt to include these findings to promulgate and facilitate women entrepreneurship development.

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R. Ganesan *

National Foundation for Entrepreneurship Development

R. Ganesan

Ulusal Girisimciligi Gelistirme Vakfi

* Dr. R. Ganesan, Chairperson, National Foundation for Entrepreneurship Development, Tamil NaduIndia. E-mail: alanganesan@gmail.com

Table 1. Correlation between Entrepreneurial Background Variables and
Psychosocial & Psycho-entrepreneurial Variables

EBV
PV & PEV COUE EAKS LOCP PLASPR

AGE 0.074 0.040 0.410 * 0.182
EDO 0.276 -0.225 0.096 0.042
POE 0.233 -0.228 0.027 -0.289
ENE 0.035 0.246 -0.229 0.225
FIN -0.374 * -0.342 -0.191 0.308
MIA -0.541 ** -0.184 0.233 0.329
EDT -0.086 -0.163 0.368 * 0.353 *
FORE -0.184 -0.373 * 0.107 0.056
FOPRS -0.232 -0.016 -0.018 0.278
POCA -0.252 -0.107 0.061 0.169

EBV
PV & PEV PLASPV SUP EEF

AGE 0.206 0.051 -0.289
EDO 0.127 0.085 0.217
POE -0.155 -0.204 0.626 **
ENE 0.278 0.204 0.104
FIN 0.129 0.275 -0.478 **
MIA 0.058 0.199 -0.478 **
EDT 0.359 0.118 -0.482 **
FORE 0.054 0.236 -0.361 *
FOPRS 0.339 0.236 -0.241
POCA 0.129 0.055 -0.141

N=32; *- Significant at 95[degrees],6 level (p < 0.05); **- Significant
at 99% level (p < 0.01)

Table 2. Correlation Matrix amongst Psychosocial &
Psycho-entrepreneurial

Variables

PV & PEV
PV & PEV COUE EAKS LOCP PLASPR

COUE 1.000 0.178 0.302 -0.420 *
EAKS 1.000 -0.089 -0.044
LOCP 1.000 0.005
PLASPR 1.000
PLASPV
SUP
EEF

Variables

PV & PEV
PV & PEV PLASPV SUP EEF

COUE -0.269 -0.291 0.323
EAKS -0.090 -0.071 -0.146
LOCP 0.101 0.016 -0.105
PLASPR 0.874 ** 0.617 ** -0.516 **
PLASPV 1.000 0.593 ** -0.290
SUP 1.000 -0.255
EEF 1.000

N=32; *- Significant at 95% level (p < 0.05);
** - Significant at 99% level (p < 0.01)