Reading the Harlem Renaissance into public policy: lessons from the past to the present.

Harden, Renata ; Jackson, Christopher K. ; Pitts, Berlethia J. 等

Harlem. 1917. Music bursting from the seams, the wondrous sounds of Cab Calloway's "scat" singing, and the majestic melody of Duke Ellington and his Cotton Club orchestra. The cool crisp air is almost perfectly aligned to the tunes of the jazz that captivates the night air.

Lights, camera, action--The "Queen of Happiness," Florence Mills takes center stage at the Alhambra Theater on Seventh Avenue for her performance in the musical Blackbirds while Anita Bush's, The Lafayette Players, the first African American acting company, prepares its 300 performers for the stage.

At a small outdoor cafe, straddled alongside broad sidewalks and newly constructed homes, amidst the sounds of voices and the echoes of the city, sit four brightly colored chairs, each in its own lavish raiment. Here we see Countee Cullen, Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, and Claude McKay sharing a literary moment, a moment that would eventually develop into a profound cultural and artistic expression, a decade of prominent and expressive publications by African Americans, the Harlem Renaissance.

The Harlem Renaissance is a product of African American culture and history, as Gates and McKay describe it as "the irresistible impulse of blacks to create boldly expressive art of a high quality as a primary response to their social conditions, as an affirmation of their dignity and humanity in the face of poverty and racism." (1) This period represents the beauty, strength, and intelligence of an oppressed people. (2) The term "renaissance" is used by historians to characterize some moment when a culture, once dormant, has been reawakened. It is during this time that the world saw a plethora of publications by African American authors, including Countee Cullen's Color, whose work became the first African American book of prose to be published by a major American publishing house, as well as Jean Toomer's Cane, which is a book of fiction published by DoubleDay. These works follow the poetic and artistic approaches of Claude McKay, a Jamaican-born immigrant to the United States, who is believed to be the first major poet of the Harlem Renaissance. The ability of Claude McKay to become one of the most prominent figures of the Harlem Renaissance speaks to the systematic conditions of racism and discrimination that linked black people all over the world. French-speaking blacks were uniting themselves with the Negritude movement while the British West Indies saw an explosion of literary achievements, especially through the literary work of Derek Walcott.

Yet, there was something about Harlem, New York, that made the renaissance become one of the most acclaimed literary and artistic movements in the history of the United States. Harlem, per se, and its strategic location as the home of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), Marcus Garvey's Universal Negro Improvement Association, W.E.B. Du Bois' Crisis and other prominent literary, cultural, and political magazines and newspapers, and jazz legends such as Bessie Smith, Cab Calloway and Duke Ellington, was a haven for black folks, or as the title of the March 1925 issue of Survey Graphic proclaimed, "Harlem: Mecca of the New Negro." The subtitle was designated by Alain Locke, whose later work, The New Negro, is said to be the text that actually launched the Harlem Renaissance. Although later criticized for some of his decisive editorial judgments as editor of The New Negro, Locke's work helped to propel the idea that a cultural awakening, a new spirit, was emerging among African Americans in Harlem. Locke viewed the Harlem Renaissance as a "belief in the efficacy of collective effort in race co-operation." (3)

The goal of this collective effort was to use art as a vehicle for knowledge, understanding, and change. In his pivotal work, The New Negro: Voices of the Harlem Renaissance, Locke makes the distinction between the "Old Negro" and the "New Negro." The "Old Negro" was marred with historical controversy and moral debate. The "Old Negro" was a "something ... to be kept down, or in his place. ..." The humanistic attributes of the "Old Negro" were not at all present. Nonetheless, the "New Negro" represents that of "self-reliance," and "self-respect." According to Locke, the writing of this period demonstrates a "rise from social disillusionment to race pride, from the sense of social debt to the responsibilities of social contribution, and offsetting the necessary working and commonsense acceptance of restricted conditions, the belief in ultimate esteem and recognition." (4) Harlem became the symbol for African Americans' coming of age.

These developments were taking place in the midst of a changing geographical climate in which African Americans from the south were migrating north. A large number of Blacks streamed into the northern cities in the first years of the new century, forced out by the poverty of southern agriculture and the mean brutality of southern racial bigotry. The Great Migration included masses of black folks who were tired of the segregated south, its ties and enforcement of Jim Crow laws, its broken promises after the Civil War and during Reconstruction, and its bitter living conditions that had helped to sustain and maintain a poor quality of life for them. Lynching of African Americans and the denial of basic human rights under the protection of the law made the south a very difficult place to live. So, upon hearing of the better conditions of the industrial north and its factories and industries that were willing to hire African Americans, especially due to the fact that World War I had begun and, thus, White Americans were fighting abroad, Black Southerners left the south and all its baggage and journeyed to a new beginning.

Although they were met with harsh realities and conditions of the North, including residential segregation, they found Harlem, a place that welcomed them with open arms. Black Southerners found quality homes in a cosmopolitan atmosphere that far exceeded their expectations. They were surrounded by the leading writers, artists, jazz musicians, and performers of their time. Drawn to Harlem, others joined in this mass exodus from all over the United States, including, Langston Hughes from Kansas and later Illinois, Gwendolyn Bennett from Texas, Arna Bontemps from Los Angeles, Wallace Thurman from Washington, D.C., and Helene Johnson and Dorothy West from New England. The center of attraction, Harlem became the pivotal point from which the renaissance occurred, or as James Weldon Johnson so eloquently stated regarding Harlem as "the Negro capital of the world."

What we gain from this cultural phenomenon is the ability to understand the plight and conditions of African Americans during this time. Not only do we ingest their attitude towards racism and discrimination in the United States, we also learn of their responses to discrimination and their proliferation of "Black is Beautiful." The literature, in particular, is less attached to the earlier forms of dialectal writing and more attuned to the thoughts, emotions, aspirations, and pathos of African Americans. Poets and writers sought a freer, looser style of verse and language that reflected African American life in the 1920s.

Hence, from the literature of the Harlem Renaissance emerged themes of hope and oppression, the urban atmosphere, as well as racial pride and solidarity, and social and economic self-sufficiency. There can be no doubt that the emergence of Negro writers in the postwar period stemmed, in part, from the fact that they were inclined to exploit the opportunity to write about themselves. The growth of the Harlem Renaissance was fostered by two factors: (1) the migration that began during the war inspired blacks to develop a responsibility and a self-confidence that they had not previously known--they became defiant, bluer, and impatient; and (2) the riots that followed World War I. Blacks fought with audacity. They had achieved a level of articulation that made it possible for them to transfer their feelings into a variety of literary forms--they possessed enough restraint and objectivity to use their materials artistically. The writers of the Harlem Renaissance were not so much as revolting against the system as they were protesting the unjust operation of the system. The greatness of blacks during this period highlights a critical but intellectual juncture in American culture. At the height of the Great Depression in the 1930s, Blacks produced some of the most timeless works that spoke to their issues and provided an outlook for future generations.

Therefore, this article focuses on key themes that dominated this time period, hope and oppression, urban neighborhood-ghetto, embracing blackness, and social and political equality. More importantly, this writing will highlight the ways in which the literature of the Harlem Renaissance speaks to the social problems in the African American community today. The authors contend that there is a clear relationship between the cultural landscape and experiences of African Americans in the 1920s to those of today. In many regards, the problems that African Americans faced in their community in the 1920s are much of the same ones facing the community today. In other ways, the literature of the Harlem Renaissance speaks to the creation of problems that would be confined to later generations. As such, the authors will attempt to connect and show the severity of the issues as they particularly affect the African American community.

The specific works that have been selected for this article range from both fiction and non-fiction essays and prose. This conscious decision is due in part to highlight the diverse literature that was produced during the Harlem Renaissance. Moreover, the selection of these artifacts also reflects the teaching of these different works in an undergraduate classroom setting. It is important to draw a connection to the works and signify their relevance in today's society. As such, specific themes of the Harlem Renaissance will be examined in their original context first. After a clear and critical analysis is offered, the authors will draw a direct correlation to the social problems that still plague the African American community in today's society.

Furthermore, as the authors are teachers of English and African American Literature, they subscribe to the belief that the literature of the Harlem Renaissance rivals and is just as important as other literary periods. As such, their teaching of the material in the academic classroom is sometimes challenging, and oftentimes tumultuous, due to the Eurocentric worldview and perspectives that have come to frame the thinking processes of many African American students. Thus, this article will also focus on the lessons the authors have learned from teaching the works in the academic classroom and how those lessons can be applied to different scenarios.

Hope and Oppression

At this time in American history, black people found themselves on the outskirts of U.S. society. It is this marginality that ultimately influences the writing of this time, and thus, creates an environment for the free expression of those ideals. Being on the periphery of American society gave the writers a keen insight into the world from which they had been forbidden. Take, for example, Claude McKay's lines in "The White House" (5):

  Your door is shut against my tightened face,
  And I am sharp as steel with discontent;
  But I possess the courage and the grace
  To bear my anger proudly and unbent

In these few lines, McKay's anger is only masked by his valor and poise, as his unhappiness from being barred from the White House has caused him to remain firm in his demeanor. He later exclaims in the poem:

  Oh, I must keep my heart inviolate
  Against the potent poison of your hate.

McKay, known for his ability to use the Shakespearean sonnet to write passionately about Black injustice, remains steadfast in spite of the hatred that abounds.

McKay's poem echoes the sentiments of Zora Neale Hurston, one of the most prominent female writers of the time. Born in Eatonville, Florida, and later educated at Barnard College, her novels, including Their Eyes Were Watching God, Dust Tracks on a Road, Mules and Men, among other works, demonstrate her ability to explore and capture Black cultural reality. She describes her feelings of marginality in "How It Feels to Be Colored Me." She writes:

"I feel most colored when I am thrown against a sharp white background. For instance at Barnard. 'Besides the water of the Hudson' I feel my race. Among the thousand white persons, I am a dark rock surged upon, and overswept, but through it all, I remain myself. When covered by the waters, I am; and the ebb but reveals me again. (6)

In this passage, Hurston highlights the ways in which her color, her blackness, seems to stand out most when in an all-white environment. It is in this environment that she is submerged in whiteness, but she does not allow her surroundings to destroy her black identity.

Marita Bonner's work exhibits the interconnections of race, class, and gender. Her phenomenal essay, "On Being Young--a Woman--and Colored" made a powerful debut in the Crisis. It demonstrates the ways in which certain prejudices can marginalize an individual's way of life. She writes, "Why do they see a colored woman only as a gross collection of desires, all uncontrolled, reaching out for their Apollos and the Quasimodos with avid discrimination." (7) It is this sort of discrimination and the impending marginality and limitations that it causes that Bonner tackles throughout this pivotal essay.

Bonner's work highlights the gendered aspect of racial discrimination. But, it is Langston Hughes' "I, Too" (8) that establishes the connection between black racial identity and American nationality. Hughes, one of the premier writers of the time, eloquently describes the ways in which African Americans have a marginal position in American society, but will, one day, be included in the fabric of American national identity. He writes:

  I, too, sing America
  I am the darker brother.
  They send me to eat in the kitchen
  When company comes,
  But I laugh,
  And eat well,
  And grow strong.
  Tomorrow,
  I'll be at the table
  When company comes.
  Nobody'll dare
  Say to me,
  "Eat in the kitchen,"
  Then.
  Besides,
  They'll see how beautiful I am
  And be ashamed--
  I, too, am America.

Hughes' poem demonstrates that hope can be silently manifested in spite of overt oppression.

From the discussion thus far, it is clear that the writers of the Harlem Renaissance were able to carefully observe their status in American society. Yet, occupying a peripheral position did not deter them or prevent them from recognizing the benefits of full integration into the larger society. In fact, their marginal position gave them keen insight into the problems afflicting the Negro race, Jet alone America in general. And they approached these problems with hope and optimism, despite their circumstances, as in Angelina Weld Grimke's poem, "The Black Finger" (9):

  I have just seen a beautiful thing
  Slim and still,
  Against a gold, gold sky,
  A straight cypress,
  Sensitive
  Exquisite,
  A black finger
  Pointing upwards.
  Why, beautiful, still finger are you black?
  And why are you pointing upwards?

It is no wonder, then, that the writings came to define an era and the plight of black Americans. It is from the visions articulated through their writings that we are able to paint a clear portrait of black life in the 1920s.

Urban Neighborhood-Ghetto

The etymological definition of the word "ghetto" traces back to Rome in the early 15th century as an obligatory place for Jews. Though, today the term and area is known as a form of segregation for an ethnic minority. (10) The marginal position that African Americans occupied was influenced by both their class standing and racial discrimination, which directly affected their overall livelihood. Although Harlem, in particular, offered a chance for African Americans to live in a better quality of homes and neighborhoods than those found in the South, it still was consumed by the temptations of the ghetto--drugs, gambling, prostitution, just a name a few. The writers of the Harlem Renaissance used these distractions as muses for writing to describe their environment. Consider the first stanza of Claude McKay's "Harlem Shadows" (11):

  I hear the halting footsteps of a lass
  In Negro Harlem when the night lets fall
  Its veil. I see the shapes of girls who pass
  To bend and barter at desire's call.
  Ah, little dark girls who in slippered feet
  Go prowling through the night from street to street!

In this stanza, McKay describes the women he observes as prostitutes who sell themselves at night. They tirelessly go throughout the neighborhood to offer their services to anyone who will purchase them. Later, in the last stanza, McKay has pity for these women, writing:

  Ah, stern harsh world, that in the wretched way
  Of poverty, dishonor and disgrace,
  Has pushed the timid little fret of clay,
  The sacred brown feet of my fallen race!
  Ah, heart of me, the weary, weary feet
  In Harlem wandering from street to street.

Moreover, he notes that the "harsh world" has created the situation for this, causing these women to have no other options but to exhaustively sell themselves for profit, and thereby, disgrace themselves.

This situation calls attention to the unequal economic status that African American women occupied at the time. In fact, a lot of black women held domestic occupational status, i.e., maids, housekeepers, nannies, etc. Being a servant for rich white people was a very common profession for many African Americans. Hughes describes the daily routine of a servant in "Negro Servant" (12). He begins:

  All day subdued, polite,
  Kind, thoughtful to the faces that are white.

He later continues in the poem:

  At six o 'clock, or seven, or eight,
  You're through.
  You're worked all day.
  Dark Harlem waits for you.
  The bus, the sub
  Pay-nights a taxi
  Through the park.

He ends with:

O, sweet relief from faces that are white!

The urban images given above are quite a stretch from the rural settings of a lot of American poetry. Instead of highlighting pastoral, quite rural towns of the South, they highlighted city life, especially the vibrant streets of Harlem. Nella Larsen's widely acclaimed novel Quicksand describes the flamboyant life of black Harlem. The protagonist of the work, Helga Crane, makes Harlem her home. Larsen describes the magic of Harlem and its affect on Helga Crane: "Her existence was bounded by Central Park, Fifth Avenue, St. Nicholas Park, and One Hundred and Forty-fifth street. Not all a narrow life, as Negroes live it, as Helga Crane knew it. Everything was there, vice and goodness, sadness and gayety, ignorance and wisdom, ugliness and beauty, poverty and richness." (13)

One of the defining aspects of the urban-neighborhood ghetto is that it is predominately black. Although whites may patron some local businesses or entertainment arenas found within the black neighborhood, seldom do they live within the black community. Thus, the black community, plagued by its educational ailments, poor housing establishments, unemployment, crime, and poverty, is disproportionally and negatively affected by these circumstances, which ultimately affects their way of life. Rudolph Fisher's short story, "The City of Refuge" speaks to the black urban life found within Harlem. The main character is a southerner, King Solomon Gillis, who is fascinated by Harlem. Before leaving North Carolina for Harlem, New York, Gillis believes that "in Harlem, black was white. You had rights that could not be denied you; you had privileges, protected by law. And you had money. Everybody in Harlem had money. It was the land of plenty." (14) Yet, the reality of Harlem, and other predominately black neighborhood, is that they are strategically separated from predominately white neighborhoods, a kind of geographical racial division. Plus, they are plagued by certain urban ailments confined to city life, and those confined to being black. Racial segregation abound, the city suffered from the racial division experienced in the rest of the country.

Embracing Blackness

Although the writers of the Harlem Renaissance tackled themes of hope and oppression as well as the urban environment, they also managed to embrace their black identity despite the overwhelming burdens of race in American society. The issue of race has and will continue to be the most highly debated and contested sociological variable that America has had to deal with. In 1903, W.E.B. Du Bois in his pivotal work, The Souls of Black Folk, asserted that, "The problem with the twentieth century is the problem of the colorline ..." (15) This statement not only proved to be true for the 20th century, it is a still a reoccurring problem within the 21st century as well. However, although this problem has been prevalent ever since the slaves first arrived in Virginia in 1619, during the Harlem Renaissance, there was a sense of racial solidarity and cooperation that existed that is not easily noticed in today's time.

The theme of one embracing their blackness can be seen in Langston Hughes poem "Negro," in which he affirms his blackness and sense of humanity by establishing his cultural roots to Africa. Throughout the poem, Hughes juxtaposes the great contributions the Negro has made to the world with that of brutality that he has also endured. Though, there is a strong connection and homage paid to Africa. This greatness is also evident in "Black Majesty (16)" by Countee Cullen:

  These men were kings, albeit they were black,
 Christophe and Dessalines and L 'Ouverture;
 Their majesty has made me turn my back
 Upon a plaint I once shaped to endure.

Davis contends that Cullen's poetry viewed the Negro as an alien in America who has been taken out of his beautiful homeland of Africa to endure "insult, humiliation, and injustice." (17) As the sonnet continues Cullen details the image of the Negro in America. Yet, he juxtaposes this image with that of the kings in which the Negro was once King and can be again.

  Dark gutter-snipe, black sprawler-in-the-mud,
  A thing men did may do again.
  What answer filters through your sluggish blood
  To these dark ghosts who knew so bright a reign?
  "Lo, I am dark, but comely, "Sheba sings
   "And we were black," three shades reply, "but kings."

These poems highlight the importance of one embracing their blackness and are used in the classroom setting to demonstrate to students that they come from greatness. They share the same sentiments of Marcus Garvey and his mission of the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) and his widespread "Back to Africa" campaign. Garvey not only embraced his blackness, he also embraced Africa as a whole. He describes the purpose of the UNIA association "to have established in Africa that brotherly co-operation which will make the interests of the African native and the American and West Indian Negro one and the same, ... we shall enter into a common partnership to build up Africa in the interests of our race." (18)

Gwendolyn Bennett's poem, "To a Dark Girl," (19) promotes the beauty and distinctive features of being a Black girl. This poem is written like a personal letter to all Black girls, who in spite of whatever hardships, have a distinctive beauty in their brownness. The beauty and strength of a Black girl can be seen in the opening lines.

  I love you for your brownness,
  And the rounded darkness of your breast,
  I love you for the breaking sadness in your voice
  And shadows where your wayward eyelids rest.

The words "breaking sadness" and "wayward eyelids" are allusions to the struggles that Black girls have to endure. Bennett continues with this love letter by asserting that Black girls are like "forgotten queens," which is present in the grace of their walk. This poem is a testament for Black girls to embrace their heritage of

  Something of old forgotten queens
  Lurks in the lithe abandon of your walk
  And something of the shackled slave
  Sob in the rhythm of your talk

  Oh, little brown girl, born for sorrow's mate,
  Keep all you have of queenliness,
  Forgetting that you once were slave,
  And let your full lips laugh at Fate!

These ending lines represent a sign of transcendence from a Black girl's struggle to her "queenliness." Hence, her beauty is in her walk, talk, and full lips. In this poem, Bennett urges Black girls to embrace their distinctive features as a testament to their heritage.

Social and Political Equality

Another dominant theme of the Harlem Renaissance included social and political equality. Claude McKay tackled the issue of social and political equality in his poetry. Asserting a strong anger and revolution in the poem "If We Must Die," or the apparent disdain that America treats the Negro in "America." McKay's poetry calls direct attention to the societal ills that have and continue to plague the black community. Charles Johnson argues that McKay's poem "If We Must Die," is "one of stoical defiance which held behind it a spirit magnificent and glowing." (20) After beginning the poem with the symbol that Blacks were seen as "hogs" and "dogs," McKay outlines the greatness and nobility of the Negro.

  If we must die, 0 let us nobly die,
  So that our precious blood may not be shed
  In vain; then even the monsters we defy
  Shall be constrained to honor us though dead!

These lines allude to the use of Christian imagery and Christ's crucifixion. The "0" is like a cry out to Christ in a time of suffering and strength, which is reflective of Negro spirituals. Religion was seen as a symbol of justice in a world that lacked it. (21) Langston Hughes does well to utilize these images to highlight the problem of lynching, which was a significant social problem at the time. He writes in the first stanza of "Christ in Alabama" (22):

 Christ is a nigger,
 Beaten and black:
 Oh, bare your back!

Hughes continues, with the last stanza:

  Most holy bastard
  Of the bleeding mouth,
  Nigger Christ
  On the cross
  Of the south.

Clearly, Hughes is drawing a connection between the lynching of African Americans and the crucifixion of Christ. In Returning Soldiers (23), Du Bois outlined problems Blacks faced in America after returning from World War I. Problems such as lynching, disfranchisement, ignorance, etc. In this essay, Du Bois contends:

  We return.
  We return from fighting.
  We return fighting.

World War I, in fact, highlighted certain issues for African Americans, especially the hypocrisy of fighting in a war abroad when freedom was unattainable at home. Although McKay, Hughes, and Du Bois take a militant, and in some ways, graphic approach to the problems Blacks faced, their work called attention to the need for change and the urgency for it.

It is important to note that Du Bois philosophy of "double-consciousness" overshadows some of the major works of this period. Du Bois contends that double-consciousness:

  ... is a peculiar sensation ... this sense of always looking at one
  self through the eyes of others, of measuring one 's soul by the
  tape of a world that looks on in amused contempt and pity. One
  ever feels his two-ness,--an American a Negro; two souls two
  thoughts, two unreconciled strivings; two warring ideals in one
  dark body, whose dogged strength alone keeps it from being torn
  asunder. (24)

The problem of being Black and American are highlighted in the poems of Hughes, Cullen and many others. In "America (25)" Hughes compares the struggles of Blacks and Jews in this country. The opening lines present the problem of being Black or Jewish in America and to be seen as an outcast.

  Little dark baby,
  Little Jew baby!
  Little outcast,

Cullen's 'Incident" (26) written like a nursery rhyme, shows how a child is impacted by racism when he was in Baltimore and called a "nigger" by a young White boy on the train.

  Now I was eight and very small,
  And he was no whit bigger,
  And so I smiled, but he poked out
  His tongue, and call me, "Nigger."

The prosody in this poem by Cullen has a traditional pattern, simple language, and a regular beat; but it also addresses the problem of prejudice and racism from a child's perspective. These poems, among many others during this period, deal with the duality of being an American and being Black.

Although there are many more writers that spoke out against the social and political conditions that they faced, what is of critical importance here is that their art and/or craft in letters was used as a vehicle to call attention to these problems. Baraka believes that the writing during this period was revolutionary and reflects the "struggle to speak out against imperialism." (27)

From the Past to the Present

The themes presented above speak volumes to the lives of African Americans today. Although a challenging economic time, African Americans have seen measurable progress, one that includes the election of the first African American president, President Barack Hussein Obama. His election alone is a testament to the hope and oppression that characterized the Harlem Renaissance. Obama was able to overcome vast challenges, including a single-parent household and an absentee father, coupled with the racial discrimination that continues to plague American society, to attain educational achievements and eventually the status of president of the United States. The election of this president symbolizes the promises of the nation and the ability to overcome obstacles to achieve a dream. This is reminiscent of Claude McKay's message in "America" (28):

  Although she feeds me bread of bitterness
  And sinks into my throat her tiger's tooth,
  Stealing my breath of life, I will confess
  I love this cultured hell that tests my youth! . ...

The stanza above shows an undeniable love and affection for America, despite the challenges she presents to him. This is a common tendency among African Americans: to overcome adversity with dignity, grace, and a little bit of love, as exhibited during the Civil Rights Movement. Still, the nation has not come so far as to distance itself from racism, as the issue of being black is evident with the recent reports regarding the legitimacy of President Obama's birth in Hawaii, and the constant and degrading stereotypes that follow Black people in media.

Economically, African Americans have grown substantially in terms of monetary advancement, which has allowed many of them to move into historically white suburbs. Yet, the policy implication for this is drastic, as the political clout of African American middle class comes in question. The move from the city to the suburbs can affect the census results and weaken the suburban black vote. The President of the National Urban League, Marc Morial says "African-Americans must be vigilant against subtle discrimination when states redraw their political maps." (29) Hence, it is important that African Americans are counted, regardless of their location. An under count could possibly result in policy implications that hinder the progress of African Americans. It has already been determined that there was an under count in the 2000 census by 2.8 percent. According to the Associated Press, "New York Mayor Michael Bloomberg and Detroit Mayor Dave Bing already have said they will contest the 2010 counts for their cities. Those challenges are mostly aimed at getting a higher population count that would bring a larger share of federal dollars to their cities for schools, roads and health care." (30) Thus, although some blacks have migrated to suburbs, they have not escaped the challenges that come with being black in America.

Those blacks that are confined to the city still face massive unemployment and are usually relegated to low-paying jobs, representative of the urban neighborhood-ghetto written about during the Harlem Renaissance. At 15.3 percent, the unemployment rate for African Americans is much higher than for other groups. As it was then, and still today, many African Americans live in densely populated areas comprised with inadequate schools. This often culminates into a disastrous spiral of crime and a cycle of imprisonment, which impedes political and economic participation.

The writers of the Harlem Renaissance expressed their ideas in a segregated society. Integration had not occurred yet, and so the overt racism of the 1920s is masked in today's society in other ways. Yet, the writers were able to give an accurate portrayal of life during this time, in which class issues had just begun to affect the way of life for many African Americans, especially those that migrated from the south to the north. Now we can see the manifestations of class issues in the black community, especially in terms of the migration from the city to the suburb and the mass reverse exodus from the north to the south. The issue of class was clearly articulated in the writings of E. Franklin Frazier. His writings reflect that of a man who spoke out about "America's racial injustice, the Negro's reluctance to measure up to national standards ... and the false ideals of Black middle class." (31) In his work La Bourgeoisie Noire, Frazier argues that the Negro is not a homogeneous group. The issue of class-consciousness is examined and explained to dispel the notion that all Blacks share the same economic interests. Some from the Black middle class have bought into the capitalistic system that is not concerned about culture but of "work and wealth."

Differences in class status ultimately affect the ways in which some blacks experience racial discrimination. Thus, the racial solidarity and cooperation that existed during the Harlem Renaissance has been altered in this new generation, as many blacks are guided by their own economic interests. And since many are now in white neighborhoods, their class interests usually aligns with their white neighbors. Consequently, even the "Black is beautiful" motto has been challenged, seeing that with racial integration came new standards of beauty, life, and education.

Lessons from the Teachers

When we (the authors of this article) were students ourselves, we never considered or envisioned that we would one day be teachers. As a result of providence or fate, however, we were each "called" to the classroom to teach English and African American Literature at an Historically Black College and University. When we transitioned from our roles as students into our careers as teachers, we held firm to our individual and collective passion for self and racial heritage and identity. As African Americans, it was (is) without question that we would teach, study and continue to learn works written by, about and for African Americans; hence, our commitment to the Harlem Renaissance. In theory, our pedagogical approach was simple: We will teach material that the students must know in accordance to the curriculum requirements and we will teach material that the students should know in accordance to our own personal philosophies regarding the purpose of education. In practice, however, we have encountered unforeseen challenges. These tests have been pervasive and, most often, frustrating but they have provided us with invaluable lessons that have enabled us to become better equipped teachers.

One of the greatest challenges we face comes in the form of having our instructional and topical methodologies questioned. We teach many of the same courses and subject matters as other instructors; however, we consciously choose to emphasize, highlight and delve deeper into the writers and works which we, as African Americans, deem relevant to and reflective of our students. We contend that, prior to coming to our classrooms, students have received--or over the course of their lifetimes will receive--sufficient information regarding European poets and authors. It is, therefore, our responsibility to introduce students to writers who look like them, who encounter the same predicaments as them and who can serve as examples for them. As with any public educational system, there are specific objectives and outcomes which must be satisfied. Yet, beyond the mandated system, institutional and course requirements, we answer to a higher prerequisite: our conscience.

Other difficulties we encounter in teaching literature of the Harlem Renaissance are those challenges common to every educator: the students themselves. It is a continuous struggle to get students to identify with the conditions and issues under which these authors wrote. Students either cannot or simply will not accept that life for African Americans has not always been as it is now. Through the efforts and pursuits of those who stood, sat and, in many cases, gave their lives to ensure that future generations would have liberties not bestowed to them, there are more opportunities available to us today than in any other time in history.

Conversely, we are teaching the first generation of African American students who are less literate and more illiterate than their ancestors. To our students, the content--the message, the anguish, the hope, the meaning--of the Harlem Renaissance literature is as foreign to them as the Igbo language. Since many of them were seven to nine years of age when September 11, 2001 occurred, they can easily relate to war or terrorist-related violence. As a result of their age, they are also well versed in bullying and gang- or territorial-related violence, domestic and foreign. What they do not grasp, however, is the relevance of studying literary works which address "outdated topics" such as segregation, discrimination, and blatant racism. To them, these "concepts" existed only in the past and there is no reason to have to read about them today. For that reason, they fail to see the potential enlightenment (academic, personal, social, and economic) that is linked to very literary works they rebuff.

Another dilemma we have learned to overcome is countering backward thinking and backward, wrong, information. By the time many of the students reach our college classrooms, they have been "raised" in educational systems that ingrained in them low self-esteem, self-hatred and racial contempt. Here we are attempting to teach them about black men and women who sought power and equality through their written word and, yet, our students are deeply contained in a "backdoor mindset" that has left them voiceless and powerless. They are voiceless not because they do not have anything to say, but because they have heard, been taught and accepted that what they have to say, to offer, is wrong, unimportant and irrelevant. Throughout their lives, they have been socialized to be silent. The result of this problem is that a major part of our 18 week semesters are spent getting students acclimated (1) to the sound of their own voices within the classroom, (2) to not being afraid to give an incorrect response and (3) to becoming critical thinkers, readers, speakers and writers. What we have learned from this challenge is once students realize the value of their thoughts, their analysis and interpretation, Harlem Renaissance literature is often more profound and eloquent than we, the instructors, could have ever worded.

Finally, it is equally challenging to successfully impart to our students the reality that language, and their appropriate and efficient use of it, shapes them and society's perception of them. When the justice system failed to include and to work for blacks during the period recognized as the Harlem Renaissance, the writers found that their written word was an effective means of fighting back and standing up. Through their poems, essays, social commentary and short stories, they were able to address societal ills in a manner that did not cost them their lives or freedom. Cullen, Bonner and McKay and every other black writer within the Harlem Renaissance understood that their best weapon against, social, racial, economic and educational injustice was their written works, their voices. Their hands were their weapons in the sense that they wrote through their pain, despair and heartache. Many of the students we instruct also choose to use their hands as weapons. Rather than take the position of scribe; however, they approach their troubles with closed-fists punches, open-handed slaps or guns and knives.

Conclusion

The writers of the Harlem Renaissance were able to carefully articulate and portray the life of African Americans during the 1920s. They highlighted the issues and concerns that were prevalent in their life. It is from their works that we learned how they dealt with massive oppression and discrimination as well as poverty and racism. Moreover, their work also called attention to the problems that would eventually affect later generations. It is also through their work and their articulation of their trials that we, as educators, have "instructions" as to how we can, and must, address the cyclical issues that plague our communities: those past, those present and those to come.

(1.) Henry Louis Gates and Nellie Y. McKay, eds. The Norton Anthology of African American Literature (New York: Norton, 2004), 953.

(2.) Imara A. Baraka, Daggers and Javelins: Essays, 1974 -1979 (New York: William Morrow and Co., 1984).

(3.) Alaine Locke., ed., The New Negro: Voices of the Harlem Renaissance (New York: Antheneum, 1925/1992), 11.

(4.) Locke, The New Negro, H.

(5.) Claude McKay, "The White House," in The Norton Anthology of African American Literature, eds. Henry Louis Gates and Nellie Y. McKay (New York: Norton, 2004), 1009.

(6.) Zora Neale Hurston, "How It Feels to be Colored Me," in The Norton Anthology of African American Literature, eds. Henry Louis Gates and Nellie Y. McKay (New York: Norton, 2004), 1031.

(7.) Marita Bonner, "On Being Young--a Woman--and Colored," in The Norton Anthology of African American Literature, eds. Henry Louis Gates and Nellie Y. McKay (New York: Norton, 2004), 1246.

(8.) Langston Hughes, "1, Too," in The Norton Anthology of African American Literature, eds. Henry Louis Gates and Nellie Y. McKay (New York: Norton, 2004), 1295.

(9.) Angelina Weld Grimke, "The Black Finger," in The Norton Anthology of African American Literature, eds. Henry Louis Gates and Nellie Y. McKay (New York: Norton, 2004), 969.

(10.) Sandra Debenedetti-Stow, "The Etymology of 'Ghetto': New Evidence from Rome," in Jewish History 6, no. 1-2 (1992): 79-85.

(11.) Claude McKay, "Harlem Shadows," in The Norton Anthology of African American Literature, eds. Henry Louis Gates and Nellie Y. McKay (New York: Norton, 2004), 1006.

(12.) Langston Hughes, "Negro Servant," in The Norton Anthology of African American Literature, eds. Henry Louis Gates and Nellie Y. McKay (New York: Norton, 2004), 1301.

(13.) Nella Larsen, "Quicksand," in The Norton Anthology of African American Literature, eds. Henry Louis Gates and Nellie Y. McKay (New York: Norton, 2004), 1113.

(14.) Rudolph Fisher, "The City of Refuge," in The Norton Anthology of African American Literature, eds. Henry Louis Gates and Nellie Y. McKay (New York: Norton, 2004), 1225.

(15.) W. E. B. Du Bois, The Souls of Black Folks (New York: Signet, 1903), 17.

(16.) Chris Berg, "Black Majesty," Poem of the Moment Blog, March 23, 2006, accessed May 26, 2011, http://poeminstant.blogspot.com/2006/03/counteecullen.html

(17.) Arthur P. Davis, "The Alien-and-Exile Theme in Countee Cullen's Racial Poems," Phylon 14, no. 14 (1953): 390.

(18.) Marcus Garvey, "Africa for the Africans," in The Norton Anthology of African American Literature, eds. Henry Louis Gates and Nellie Y. McKay (New York: Norton, 2004), 998

(19.) Gwendolyn Brooks, "To a Dark Girl," in The Norton Anthology of African American Literature, eds. Henry Louis Gates and Nellie Y. McKay (New York: Norton, 2004), 1268.

(20.) David Lewis, ed., The Portable Harlem Renaissance Reader (New York: Penguin, 1995), 209.

(21) Lawrence W. Levine, Black Culture and Black Consciousness: Afro-American Folk Thought from Slavery to Freedom, 30th Anniversary Edition (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007.

(22) Langston Hughes, "Christ in Alabama," in The Norton Anthology of African American Literature, eds. Henry Louis Gates and Nellie Y. McKay (New York: Norton, 2004), 1301.

(23) W. E. B. Du Bois, "Returning Soldiers," The Crisis, XVIII (1919): 13.

(24) Du Bois, Souls, 11.

(25.) Langston Hughes, "America," Vintage Hughes, accessed May 26, 2011, http://www.randomhouse.com/highschool/catalog/dispiay.pperl?isbn=9781400034024&view=printexcerpt.

(26.) Countee Cullen, "Incident," in The Norton Anthology of African American Literature, eds. Henry Louis Gates and Nellie Y. McKay (New York: Norton, 2004), 1342.

(27.) Baraka, Daggers and Javelins, 144.

(28.) Claude McKay, "America," in The Norton Anthology of African American Literature, eds. Henry Louis Gates and Nellie Y. McKay (New York: Norton, 2004), 1008.

(29.) "New State of Black America report expresses concern about black clout in once white suburbs," Nola.com, March 31, 2011, accessed on May 25, 2011, http://www.nola.com/news/index.ssf/2011/03/new_state_of_black_america_rep.html.

(30.) Ibid.

(31.) Davis, The Alien, 390-400.

Dr. Berlethia J. Pitts