Bowling for dollars: establishing perceived need and brand equity in a participatory sport.

Koesters, Todd C. ; Ballouli, Khalid ; Bernthal, Matthew J. 等

Elliott had spent the previous few weeks in the southeastern United States consulting with different universities on behalf of Red Bull concerning a national promotion titled "the Red Bulletin," a brand campaign designed to increase brand awareness and brand equity of Red Bull among university students. This particular campaign involved the usage of samples, branded leaflets, magazine distribution, and an interactive campus tour, all signifing Red Bull's brand identity to university students. Utilizing research he had received from the GenNext Panel, a branded research and student insight tool, Elliott understood university students were 84% more likely to buy a product after receiving a free product trial or samples of it (BNCollege, 2014). As such, Elliott had targeted college students (ages 18-24 years) with this sampling program and campus tour. Yesterday, Elliott witnessed the culmination of his duties for the Red Bulletin project.

At the end of each consulting venture, Elliott is reminded of the question often posed by clients at the outset of each of his campus-related projects: "We know college students are deeply involved in our product category; however, how do we communicate with this target audience of 18-24 year-olds so that they become emotionally engaged with our brand, purchase our products, and repeat their purchases?" After years of working in the sport and entertainment industry as a consumer expert on younger generations, Elliott knew the significance of providing this so-called "elusive consumer" a consistent and enjoyable experience with the brand. He also knew that many organizations underestimate this group's intelligence and fail to engage them and create meaningful conversations and experiences on the university campus and elsewhere (e.g., social media).

Driving back to his headquarters, Elliott shifted his focus away from the Red Bulletin project and toward the process of answering this question for his next client, Ebonite International, Inc., a privately owned bowling organization that services bowling facilities, distributors, and retail outlets with various brands of bowling balls and equipment. Elliott arrived and started work on the Ebonite International project. He first revisited his notes from an earlier conversation with Jim Cormier, the vice president of marketing for Ebonite International, regarding Cormier's desire to increase sales of bowling balls among college students across the country. Cormier had begun by describing the sales and distribution model for the bowling industry that explained in large part why Elliott had struggled to find reported sales data. According to Cormier, Ebonite International, LLC, Storm Products, Inc., and Brunswick Bowling Products, the three largest bowling ball manufactures, are all privately held companies that sell a majority of their products to privately owned distribution centers. These centers then resell the balls to privately held bowling centers with pro shops that are capable of drilling (custom fitting the ball based on the bowler's hand size) each ball. While there is very little sales data available, Cormier conservatively estimated that Ebonite International, through its four brands (Columbia 300, Ebonite, Hammer, and Track), made up roughly 35% of the market. Additionally, Cormier estimated that Storm Products, through its three brands (Storm, Roto Grip, and Global 900), accounted for 30% of the market, while Brunswick Bowling Products accounted for 25% of the market through its three brands (Brunswick, DV8, and Radical).

Cormier had also offered data to Elliott that were staggering: though 16% of all bowlers (ages 7 and older) are ages 18-24 years, a number that ranks third behind ages 25-34 (22%) and ages 35-44 (17%), 18-24 year old bowlers are nearly two-thirds less likely to own a bowling ball than are bowlers in these other two age brackets. Moreover, according to Cormier, the bowlers in the 18-24 age bracket that do own a bowling ball do not seem to identify with a specific brand over another.

According to Cormier, the design and features of the Columbia 300 brand is specifically suited for the 18-24 age segment of bowlers. The Columbia 300 bowling ball product range consists of entry-level plastic through top-end reactive performance balls offered at a variety of prices ($40-$250). In addition, a recent segmentation analysis conducted by Ebonite International determined the target market for the Columbia 300 comprises young bowlers who a) bowl for fun; b) are career-oriented and focused on the future; c) enjoy active leisure-time, mostly on weekends; d) like bowling in groups, particularly for the social aspects; and e) gravitate toward brands that are fashionable, unique, and innovative. One factor that has contributed to the success of Columbia 300 is the trendiness of the ball--eye-catching colors and designs coupled with pearlized, brightly colored polyester materials. Although the look of the ball makes it an appealing choice among college students, research and development has also gone into the development of the striking sphere so that bowlers do not sacrifice pins off their scores for the prestige of owning a beautiful ball.

Utilizing the preliminary data provided by Cormier as a basis for implementation and strategy, Elliott met with his team to begin the process of developing a marketing plan that would increase brand equity of Columbia 300 among college-aged bowlers in the United States and stimulate purchase behaviors among this target audience. As with much of his previous work, the plan would include (but not necessarily be limited to) the university setting as a point of influence. He spoke at length during the meeting about the four styles of bowling balls that are currently designed, marketed, and manufactured by Ebonite International, and how each of these balls was designed with a particular target market in mind. Given the data from the segmentation analysis conducted by Ebonite International, Elliott reiterated that the Columbia 300 was suitably positioned to appeal to college students, and therefore would be the bowling ball on which their marketing plan would focus. He also discussed the market in which bowling product companies compete, one where sports equipment such as bowling shoes and bowling balls are not commonly owned by sport participants, but rented on site at the point of consumption. At the conclusion of the meeting, Elliott tasked a newly hired team leader with developing a draft of a marketing plan.

Review of Literature

At the outset of any project, Elliott enjoys spending time reading research articles related to the project, not just to learn more about the concepts involved with the project, but also as a means to substantiate his recommedations to the funding agency. For the purposes of Ebonite International, he knew that differentiating the Columbia 300 brand from other competitors in the marketplace would require refreshing his conceptual understanding of the branding process, brand positioning, and perceived need.

Branding Process

According to Shank and Lyberger (2015), the four steps of the branding process include (1) brand awareness, (2) brand image, (3) brand equity, and (4) brand loyalty.

Brand awareness. The initial step of the branding process involves increasing consumers' awareness of a brand (Shank & Lyberger, 2015). Brand awareness is a concept that is assessed simply by consumers' recall or recognition of a brand, normally measured against the number of times they were exposed to the brand whether by name or by logo (Keller, 2009). Serving as memory nodes in the minds of consumers (Aaker, 1991), the brand name is linked to related knowledge structures about the brand, such that consumers generally only consider purchasing brands of which they are aware (Hoyer & Brown, 1990; MacDonald & Sharp, 2000).

Aaker (1991) suggests brand awareness is the most important outcome associated with branding activities, since other branding outcomes (e.g., brand equity, brand loyalty) cannot be achieved without first making the target audience aware of the brand within the marketplace. Extant literature on brand awareness has primarly investigated the concept using either recall or recognition techniques. Brand recall is when a brand can be retrieved from memory without any help from cues, such as competing brand logos, associations, or product category (Aaker, 1991). Brand recognition is a less rigorous test of brand awareness, whereby consumers are provided a series of cues and asked whether or not they have been previously exposed to the brand. For example, if one were to measure the brand recognition for adidas, the researcher might provide a list of sneaker brands to a target sample of consumers and ask them to choose which ones they recognize.

Understanding brand awareness is vital for influencing the ability of sport organizations to build strong brand equity (see Gladden & Milne, 1999; Gladden, Milne, & Sutton, 1998; Ross, 2006). According to Ross (2006), brand awareness is a vital component of the branding process, and one consumers use to evaluate and choose a sport service. To this end, Papadimitriou, Apostolopoulou, and Dounis (2008) found that some non-sport organizations engage in sport sponsorship activities for the chief purpose of enhancing awareness and recognition of their companies. Further, Ross (2006) suggests that brand awareness is particularly important because of how the construct impacts the brand associations and overall image consumers have for a specific sport brand.

Brand image. Keller (1993) defines brand image as the "perceptions about a brand as reflected by the brand associations held in consumer memory" (p. 3). Brand image can be considered relative to the reasoned or emotional perceptions consumers attach to the brand (Dobni & Zinkhan, 1990). Based on consumers' perceptions, brand associations have been classified by Keller (1993) into brand attitudes (i.e., overall evaluations of the brand), brand benefits (i.e., functional, symbolic, and experiential), and brand attributes. Attributes are categorized as being in one of two groups: product-related attributes and non-product-related attributes. Product-related attributes (e.g., physical composition of product, direct benefits of service) are more commonly acknowledged by consumers as determinants of buying behavior; however, non-product-related attributes (i.e., external aspects of a product or service that relate to its consumption) are just as likely to affect an individual's purchase decisions. In fact, consumers making a purchase for the first time in a category (e.g., buying a first tennis racket) will often base their decisions on non-product-related attributes, such as user imagery (i.e., what type of people use the product) and usage imagery (i.e., where and in what situations is the product used) (Keller, 1993). Such decisions are often the result of effective brand positioning, whereby marketers try to leverage user and usage imagery in marketing through brand-consumer storytelling (Woodside, 2010). Thus, the descriptive features that categorize a product, or what a consumer thinks the product is or has to offer with its consumption, play a significant role in creating the image of the brand (Arai, Ko, & Ross, 2014).

Brand image is a key part of the branding process, because the associations consumers have about a brand play a pivotal role in consumers' decision-making process when deciding whether or not a brand reflects their personality, self-perception, and lifestyle (Dolich, 1969). In addition, a positive brand image can also influence consumers' subsequent buying behavior (Fishbein, 1967), as well as significantly affect an organization's brand equity in the consumer marketplace (Biel, 1992). Furthermore, for brands looking to create brand equity and attract consumers to their products, a "differentiated, ownable brand image can build an emotional and rational bridge from customers to a company, a product, or a service" (Ghodeswar, 2008, p. 6).

According to Bauer, Stokburger-Sauer, and Exler (2008), sport organizations operate in an unpredictable and unstable environment in which consumer desires and needs change based on various team and product-related circumstances. As such, sport marketers depend heavily on brand image to be a consistent and stable appearance to their consumers and the general public. Moreover, Ross (2006) contends that "the image of a brand in a consumer s memory represents the basis for purchase decisions and for brand loyalty" (p. 30).

Brand equity. Farquar (1989) asserts there are three means through which firms can build brand equity. First, as described earlier, brand image is a central component of brand equity. Second, firms can build brand equity by creating positive evaluations with a quality product. Consumers evaluate products "by comparing the perceived product performance against certain comparison standards," most notably the performance of competitors' products and value-price relationships (Kim & Wansink, 2012, p. 530). Under circumstances whereby consumers believe other competing products are better equipped to satisfy their functional or symbolic needs, or if consumers sense the price of the product exceeds the value of the product or service exchanged, product performance will falter and, as a consequence, brand equity will suffer (Aaker, 1997).

Third, brand equity is built by fostering accessible brand attitudes consumers have concerning the brand in order to have the most impact on consumer purchase behavior (Farquar, 1989). An individual's positive attitudes result from effortful thought given to a particular object (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986), most often due to the object's personal relevance to the individual (Park, MacInnis, Priester, Eisingerich, & Iacobucci, 2010). Prior research demonstrates how this effortful thought and feeling toward the object guide human behavior. For example, consumer studies have shown that the magnitude of brand attitude (i.e., how strongly an individual feels about a particular brand) is a reliable predictor of consumer behaviors that are of interest to firms (e.g., intention to purchase, purchase behavior, brand choice; see Fazio & Petty 2007; Petty, Haugtvedt, & Smith, 1995). MacKenzie and Lutz (1989) and Shimp (1981) also found that marketing promotions (e.g., advertising, sponsorship) can play a key role in shaping brand attitudes, so much so, in fact, that positive brand attitudes may affect perceived value to the extent that functionally inferior products actually outperform competitors with regard to sales and equity.

Brand loyalty. According to Pritchard (2014), brand loyalty is considered as having important financial implications for a sport organization. It involves having customers that are strongly committed to the brand and willing to repeat their purchase of a product or service despite internal effects (e.g., losing season, negative publicity, price increases) or external effects (e.g., competing promotion, seasonal discounts) (Mahony, Madrigal, & Howard, 2000; Oliver, 1999; Pritchard, 2014). Extant research on the topic of brand loyalty can be grouped into two primary categores: behaviors and attitudes. Traditional research on brand loyalty has largely focused on repeat purchase behaviors, which include examinations of sequencing (i.e., order of purchases), intensity (i.e., frequency of purchases), and proportion (i.e., number of times a customer purchases a brand relative to their overall consumption of other brands) (Pritchard, Howard, & Havitz, 1992).

However, sometimes indications of brand loyalty in the form of a few repeated customer behaviors does not necessarily constitute a truly "brand loyal" customer--customers often repeat their product purchases without being loyal to the brand (Mahony et al., 2000). More recent studies on brand loyalty have attempted to qualify repeated purchase behaviors with complex attitudinal scales (e.g., Heere & Dickson, 2008). Such attitudinal scales provide sport marketing practioners and academicians an alternative means of examining brand loyalty, to the point where some researchers have even adopted mathematical formulas for measuring brand loyalty, whereby brand loyalty is a function of loyal attitude and behavior (see Day, 1969; Pritchard, 2014). Based on frameworks ceated by Backman and Crompton (1991) and Pritchard and Howard (1997), the different groups of loyalty, depending on the various levels of behavioral and attitudinal loyalty, include spurious loyalty (i.e., high behavior loyalty, weak attitude loyalty), low loyalty (i.e., low behavior loyalty, weak attitude loyalty), latent loyalty (i.e., low behavior loyalty, strong attitude loyalty), and true loyalty (i.e., high behavior loyalty, strong attitude loyalty).

Sport marketers strive to move customers up the brand loyalty hierarchy to where they are truly loyal customers (e.g., Bauer et al., 2008; Funk & James, 2006; Mahony et al., 2000; Ross, 2006). According to Gladden and Funk (2004), brand loyalty is important to sport organizations for two key reasons. First, brand loyalty "ensures a more stable following even when the core product's performance falters" (p. 195). Second, Gladden and Funk (2004) suggest brand loyalty "creates opportunities for product extensions beyond the core product," such that new products can be developed as a means to create additional revenue streams (p. 194).

Brand Positioning

Brand positioning is defined as the sustainable competitive advantage or unique selling proposition that compels consumers to purchase a particular brand over a set of alternatives in a product category (Aaker & Shansby, 1982; Ries & Trout, 1979). The process involves marketers either communicating explicitly the differences between a brand and competitors (e.g., making direct comparisons to competing brands) or highlighting implicity the differences between them without making statements or judgments about a competitive point of reference (Keller, 1993).

Early research on the concept of positioning theorized that brands are either functional or symbolic in nature--brands ultimately satisfy the functional needs (i.e., product-related needs) of consumers or they serve to enhance symbolic needs (e.g., self-esteem or social identity) (Park, Jaworski, & MacInnis, 1986). However, Bhat and Reddy (1998) found brands are often comprised of both functional and symbolic aspects with a preponderance of one of the aspects depending on a consumer's unique relationship with the brand. Similarly, Aaker (1997) contends that brands can be concurrently positioned as both functional and symbolic via communications and promotions that inform consumers of the product's benefits and induce perceived needs for the product. Research in the sport field supports that "a sporting organization, as a social object or phenomenon embodies a stock of image capital" through symbolic communications and promotions (Ferrand & Pages, 1999, p. 389).

Perceived Need

Key to any positioning strategy is understanding the consumers in the target market (Keller, 1993; Ries & Trout, 1979). Equipped with more information about their consumers (e.g., demographics, psychographics, and lifestyle), marketers leverage the functional and symbolic benefits of the brand against a consumer's needs, wants, and desires (Pham, 2013). A significant hurdle for marketers, however, is reaching potential consumers in the target market who have not yet real ized a need, want, or desire strong enough to impact their buying behavior. The first step in the consumer decision-making process (Bruner II & Pomazal, 1988) involves the consumer recognizing a need--only after recognizing a need can consumers begin to search for solutions to satisfy that need. As such, any marketing efforts to reach the potential consumers in the target market who are non-buyers need to be carefully considered, because the reality is that these individuals are not currently predisposed to needing their product.

Overview of the Bowling Industry

Awareness and use of marketing research is a commonly shared characteristic of successful firms (Hague, Hague, & Morgan, 2004). However, Ebonite International had designed and executed only a few marketing research studies over the last decade. Consequently, a key reason for Ebonite's hiring of Elliott was to borrow and utilize his experience with secondary market research. Elliott offered a practical guide to issues governing choice among various secondary research methods, and advised Ebonite International to seek out comprehensive data sets put together by major U.S. research companies (e.g., Nielsen Simmons). Equipped with facts and figures regarding shopping patterns, media behaviors, and lifestyle trends of U.S. consumers, Elliott was able to provide an overview of the industry designed specifically with Ebonite International in mind.

History of the Industry

Bowling has been popular in the United States since early colonial times; however, the concept of bowling as a viable business was not commonly accepted until the late 1900s (Lewis, 2013). When the modern business of bowling began in the late 1950s and early 1960s (with the introduction of the fully automatic pinsetter), the number of bowling facilities more than doubled, with billions of dollars in capital investments (Verfurth, 2012). Participation continued to climb in subsequent decades due to a sizable group of avid and loyal customers who bowled several times per week and competed in leagues and tournaments (AgneTraub, Martin, & Tandy, 1997).

By the 1990s, traditional league bowling began to decline because of changing lifestyles. As such, bowling proprietors initiated aggressive promotional programs to create new markets of recreation-minded and socially oriented bowlers (Bosker & Lencek-Bosker, 2002). In addition, a significant number of centers began to expand product offerings by adding a range of activities to broaden their appeal to new market segments. Over the last decade, the industry has repositioned itself squarely within the booming location-based entertain ment industry in large part due to two fundamental shifts: the repackaging of traditional bowling products to appeal to both league and recreational bowlers, and the redesigning of facilities into family entertainment centers featuring activities with bowling as the core offering. More recently, some lanes have attempted to cater to young adults and corporate customers by reconfiguring facilities into upscale "bowling lounges," complete with bars and dancing halls (Miller, 2012). As the industry's target audience continues to expand, bowling is one of the few recreational sports that can aptly market itself as a competitive sport, a social and family activity, and a multi-faceted party setting.

According to data gathered by various research firms, it is apparent that the bowling industry is currently enjoying a time of unprecedented popularity, financial stability, and positive changes. By applying new technology, broadening its customer focus, and offering more diverse entertainment options, bowling has capitalized on U.S. consumers' renewed emphasis on family activities and traditional values (Harrington, 2015). Aided in recent years by the increase of family centers and statewide smoking bans, more youth and women are now playing, making bowling the most popular participation sport in America (Experian Marketing Services, 2014).

In 2014, bowling attracted a remarkable customer base of 70 million individuals who bowled at least once during the year, and almost 2 million of those actively participated in league play. Bowling traditionally does well in hard economic times, primarily because it offers reasonably priced family-oriented recreational activity close to home. In fact, in years following the United States' most recent economic recession (20102013), most centers reported that their operating revenues and margins were up, stable, or down only slightly. In addition, most centers reported a fiscal improvement in 2014 compared to 2013 (Experian Marketing Services, 2014).

Like most industries, bowling has adapted to appease the desires of contemporary U.S. consumers. Traditionally, most bowling centers catered to a blue collar customer base that was primarily interested in bowling leagues and tournaments. More recently, product manufacturers and bowling facilties have tried to reposition the sport to appeal to a more diversified, younger clientele that seeks enjoyable entertainment experiences in well-appointed facilities--a broader array of product offerings, high-quality food and beverage, and excellent customer service (Kim & Jang, 2014). These changes are enabling most centers to broaden their customer base, achieve higher prices, and become more effective players for customers' discretionary time and money.

Industry Data

According to Simmons (2014), there were approximately 4,800 bowling centers and over 100,000 lanes operating in the United States in 2013. An estimated 4,400 facilities of those were commercial centers (the others were operated by the military, colleges, fraternal organizations, and private clubs). Of these commercial centers, approximately 25% were 32 lanes or larger in size. Further, the bowling industry is also made up of an additional 184 duckpin (i.e., large pins) and candlepin (i.e., small pins) centers with approximately 2,500 lanes across the United States.

During the past decade, the makeup of commercial bowling centers has changed. As the older and smaller bowling centers closed, they were replaced by new, larger, and more diversified operations (Miller, 2012). Most of newly constructed commercial centers combine bowling with various other recreational activities such as laser tag, go-karts, bumper cars, video game arcades, climbing walls, bocce, glow mini golf, and other activities to create family entertainment centers (McIntosh, 2011). Bowling lanes have also been added to many non-traditional settings such as adult communities, hotels and resorts, casinos, churches, and young-adult entertainment centers, such as Jillians, Dave and Busters, Hooters, and Gameworks (e.g., Emilova, 2012). According to McIntosh (2011), a sizeable number of bowling lounges have opened recently in urban locations featuring bowling lanes, plush restaurants, intimate lounges, stylish furnishings, private party rooms, and high-tech video presentations.

At these boutique-style bowling settings, the traditional bowler, whose motivation for participation was for league and tournament play, has been replaced by the more modern bowler, whose motivation is tied to entertainment and social facilitation with friends and family (McIntosh, 2011; Miller, 2012).

Given these recent changes in the bowling industry, ownership of bowling centers has become remarkably diverse. No longer are bowling centers in the US only individually or family operated (although these stakeholders still make up the largest percentage of ownership). More and more of the new, larger entertainment centers are being built and operated by private investors and entertainment properties (Williams & Mascioni, 2014). Consequently, the bowling industry is marked by fragmented ownership--the two largest companies only own about 370 centers combined, while the next three largest companies together own only about 50 centers (Experian Marketing Services, 2014).

Industry Demographics

Based on recent national consumer surveys, Simmons (2014) reported that more than 51 million adults (ages 18 and over) and 19 million youth (ages 6 to 17) bowled at least once in the last year. Bowling has increased in popularity in recent years, as statistics have shown more than six consecutive years of growth in participation as of 2013. A significant portion of this increase can be explained by a heightened interest from women and young bowlers. Since 2007, the number of adult women bowlers has shown an increase every year while participation among adolecents also has trended up steadily, including a sizable 5.3% growth in 2012 (Experian Marketing Services, 2014). In sum, more than 10 million consumers classify themselves as frequent bowlers (i.e., visit bowling centers 12 or more times a year), which is a notable base of loyal customers.

According to Simmons (2014), the largest number of bowlers now stem from the higher socioeconomic households. In fact, the median income of a household with bowling participants is $67,965 per year, 20% more than the estimated median of $51,939 provided by the U.S. Census Bureau for all American households (U.S. Census Bureau, 2014). Further, more than 65% of bowlers have annual household incomes over $50,000, approximately 45% have household incomes of $75,000 or more, and roughly 30% have annual household incomes exceeding $100,000 (Experian Marketing Services, 2014). In addition, more than 60% of bowlers earn a living in one of the professional fields (e.g., management, medicine, education), and the number of bowlers with a college degree outweighs that of the U.S. population as a whole.

The sport of bowling, by almost any measure, ranks as one of the most successful forms of commercial recreation ever developed in the United States.

Bowling has nearly twice the number of active participants compared to golf (golf course closings have exceeded openings for eight straight years; Buteau, 2014) and more than four times the active participants compared to tennis or skiing (Experian Marketing Services, 2014). Furthermore, the industry's two major national open tournaments, the USBC Open Championship and USBC Women's Championship, attract between 60,000-80,000 individual entries annualy (USCB, n.d.), figures surpassing even popular U.S. marathons (Robbins, 2008).

Types of Bowlers

One of the biggest keys to making good decisions while designing and implementing a marketing plan is knowing the different types of consumers in the industry (Shank & Lyberger, 2015). In regard to the bowling industry, consumers generally belong to one of three categories: league bowlers, open bowlers, and special event bowlers (Miller, 2012). However, recently a fourth category, high school and collegiate bowlers, has emerged (USBC, n.d.). Elliott wanted to offer his clients at Ebonite International some basis on which they could reassess the similarities and differences among these categories.

League bowlers. A bowling league is a formally organized group, often associated with a company, church, or other organization, which agrees to contractual terms with a bowling center to bowl on a regularly scheduled basis (Jowdy, 2009). Participants are divided into teams that compete with each other for prizes. A league season will usually last 30 to 35 weeks--although some leagues now utilize much shorter schedules to appease changing participant demographics.

According to Simmons (2014), the number of certified league bowlers (i.e., men, women, and youth who participated in at least one bowling league) has declined by 4% annually for the greater part of the last decade. Numerous factors may be contributing to such a decline in league bowling. For example, an increase of women returning to the workforce and a rise in the number of one-parent households the past few years are both likely contributors to the steady decline in daytime bowling league participation. Further, wider competition for consumers' unrestricted time and money (Harrington, 2015; Kim & Jang, 2014), the expanded legalized gaming activity around the country (Kwon & Back, 2009), and heightened concerns for health and physical well-being among U.S. citizens (a benefit of sport participation that bowling is not always perceived as offering; Stodden et al., 2008) (Kennedy & Markula, 2011) are all feasible occurrences by which bowling league participation has steadily declined in recent years.

Open bowlers. According to Miller (2012), a so-called open bowler is an individual who bowls mainly for recreational purposes and competes primarily against previous personal scores on an individual basis. Open bowlers do not officially belong to an organized bowling league but oftentimes league bowlers will participate in open bowling on their own time away from league play. At most bowling centers, open bowlers represent the most profitable and significant customer segment--open-play pricing is considerably higher than league pricing, a high margin of business that offsets the impact of the decline in league bowlers (White Hutchinson, n.d.).

Special event bowlers. Many bowling proprietors market their centers to consumers seeking the location-based entertainment venue where parties, meetings, and social gatherings can take place at an affordable price (Harrington, 2015). More than 10 million children celebrate their birthdays annually in bowling centers (Experian Marketing Services, 2014), and numerous more corporate events, charity fundraisers, high school parties (e.g., after-prom, lockins), graduation parties, and related events are expanding in popularity with bowling centers as a primary venue location.

High school and collegiate bowlers. With regard to the latter two categories, the industry has experienced a notable increase in participation among the youth and young adult demographic groups. More than 10,000 schools now have a bowling curriculum whereby classrooms are used for study and local bowling centers are used for application of fundamentals and philosophies learned in class. This perhaps explains the 17% increase in bowling among youth under the age of 14 (McIntosh, 2011). Further, Simmons' (2014) data reveals that one out of every two youths under the age of 18 bowls at least once every year.

Perhaps the most exciting development in this area has been the recent increase of high school varsity competition, complete with coaches, cheerleaders, state finals, and considerable parental involvement (USBC, n.d.). More than 20 states now recognize bowling as a sanctioned varsity inter-school athletic competition. In fact, bowling is the fastest-growing high school team sport in the country for young males and females, as participation has doubled over the last eight years. Further, during the 2012-2013 season, more than 50.000 male and female high school athletes in nearly 5.000 U.S. high schools competed in either team or club programs (USBC, n.d.).

In addition, approximately 200 colleges fielded competitive bowling teams with more than 3,000 student-athletes in the 2012-2013 season. The National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) recently elevated bowling to the status of "emerging sport," a significant step to becoming a NAIA championship sport (NAIA, 2010). More importantly, however, is the fact that non-athlete college students are changing their attitudes and behaviors towards bowling. In recent studies examining the motivations of bowlers ages 18-24, McIntosh (2011) and Williams and Mascioni (2014) found this younger demographic group was motivated mainly by aspects related to modern developments in the bowling industry, including latest technologies, sensory stimulation, social facilitation, quality food and beverage, and ancillary entertainment activities.

Current Developments in the Bowling Industry To compete for the location-based entertainment and discretionary dollar, the bowling industry has implemented several strategic innovations in order to reposition the sport's image. For example, many centers have aggressively sought to increase revenues from sales of food by focusing on their menu pricing and presentation. An upgraded restaurant operation now is seen as playing a vital role in attracting and retaining customers, and many centers report that better food is bringing more people back to bowling for repeat visits (Verfurth, 2012).

In addition to improvements in the bowling center dining experience, the application of modern technology into the actual sport experience has attracted new customers and is a primary cause for much of the growth in open play and special event bowling participants (Miller, 2012). Most centers have improved the consumer experience by adding high-definition scoring screens with touchscreen capabilities, animated graphics, music videos, and trivia games that all make the bowling experience more user-friendly and entertaining for open bowlers and special event participants.

Further, most centers have also subsitituted synthetic lanes for the traditional wood lanes, and the installation of bumpers (mechanical devices that keep the ball from rolling into the gutter) at most newly constructed or redesigned bowling centers now provide a mechanism for casual and young bowlers to participate without needing much experience or practice with the sport.

One popular aspect that has taken hold of the young adults (18-24 year olds) is glow-in-the-dark bowling, which is commonly marketed as "cosmic bowling" (McIntosh, 2011). During a cosmic bowling night, the bowling center converts into a virtual disco, complete with DJ-style music, strobe lights, lasers shows, fog machines, dance floors, and pins and lanes that glow from ultra-violet lighting (McIntosh, 2011; Miller, 2012). Such usages of modern technology, coupled with the industry's recent commitment to appeal to younger audiences, has left centers having to extend operating hours on most weekends to accommodate customer demand (McIntosh, 2011).

Yet another significant development includes the advent of bowling lounges, which differ from even the finest redesigned bowling centers in that they are built purposely with 20-35 year-old university graduates and business professionals in mind (White Hutchinson, n.d.). Bowling lounges offer upscale food and beverage services, plush furnishings, contemporary decor, high-tech video and sound systems, and intimate party facilities that typically appeal to upper middle-class customers looking for new ways to spend their leisure time and discretionary dollars (Kim & Jang, 2014). A prominent example of this recent trend is the Bowlmor Lanes, a 90,000 square feet bowling center that was constructed in 2010 inside the former New York Times building in Times Square at a cost of more than $20 million (McIntosh, 2011).

Quandaries for Manufacturers of Bowling Products and Goods

Despite the recent positive developments in the bowling industry and the steady climb of participation among open bowlers and special-event bowlers, manufacturers of bowling products have yet to realize a significant increase in product sales among these target consumer audiences. This lack of increased sales is more than likely due to the fact that most bowling centers continue to rent bowling equipment (i.e., bowling shoes and bowling balls) at minimal prices. Unlike golf and tennis in which casual participants find value in owning their own clubs and racket, respectively, casual bowlers seemingly do not find similar value in owning their own bowling ball. According to Jim Cormier, vice president of marketing for Ebonite International, "We focus most of our time and money on B2B [business-to-business] marketing simply because we have yet to uncover motives for which younger bowling audiences would want to purchase their own bowling ball as opposed to renting one at their local center" (J. Cormier, personal communication, August 21, 2014). This reality is particularly frustrating for companies such as Ebonite International that possess in their product mix bowling equipment designed specifically with young bowling consumers in mind.

Further complicating matters for equipment manufacturers is an apparent lack of consumer motivation to make purchases for products required to participate in what some suggest is the most popular participatory sport in the United States (McIntosh, 2011; Miller, 2012). Indeed, the selling position of equipment manufacturers has been weakened for decades by conventional business models and practices, such that "many open bowlers, and essentially all special event bowlers, do not know the brands or styles of balls they are bowling" (J. Cormier, personal communication, August 21, 2014). It is up to manufacturers to determine whether these non-purchasers can be convinced of the positive tangible and intangible benefits of owning their own bowling equipment, whatever those may be.

Course of Action

Elliot is to present a marketing brief (i.e., an executive summary of the marketing plan) to Jim Cormier and Ebonite International. This brief is intended to stipulate the proposed methodology for increasing brand equity of Columbia 300 among college-aged bowlers in the United States and stimulating purchase behaviors among this target audience. Elliott believes many marketing briefs fail simply because they are too complicated, too generic, or too challenging to implement.

He prefers marketing briefs that distinctly articulate the goals, objectives, strategies, and tactics of an imaginative yet realistic marketing plan. Goals should be viewed as broad, long-term purpose statements, while objectives can be described as specific intentions that can be evaluated using SMART guidelines (i.e., specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, time-bounded; Mullin, Hardy, & Sutton, 2014; Tracy, 2010). Further, strategies are the means of achieving goals and objectives, whereas tactics are the actions undertaken to implement strategies (Shank & Lyberger, 2015). As a newly hired team leader to whom Elliott has entrusted much of this project, you have been asked to develop a draft of this marketing brief. Your brief must include summary results of a SWOT analysis (i.e., strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats) for Columbia 300. In addition, the brief must provide the goals, objectives, strategies, and tactics that will ultimately enhance brand equity and increase product sales for Columbia 300 among the traditionally elusive target demographic of U.S. college students.

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Todd C. Koesters, Khalid Ballouli, Matthew J. Bernthal, and Sandy Hansell

Todd C. Koesters, JD, MSA, is an assistant professor in the Department of Sport and Entertainment Management at the University of South Carolina. His research interests include sport consumer behavior, sales and marketing, and sponsorships and ROI/ROO.

Khalid Ballouli, PhD, is an assistant professor in the Department of Sport and Entertainment Management at the University of South Carolina. His research interests include sport consumer behavior, music in contemporary sport, and branding. Matthew J. Bernthal, PhD, is an associate professor in the Department of Sport and Entertainment Management at the University of South Carolina. His research interests include consumer behavior in sport and entertainment, and marketing ethics.

Sandy Hansell, JD, is a graduate of Harvard Law School. He founded Sandy Hansell & Associates in 1997 and it is the only national firm exclusively brokering and valuing bowling centers.

Author Correspondence

Todd C. Koesters

Department of Sport and Entertainment Management

University of South Carolina

Carolina Coliseum, Room 2026-K

701 Assembly Street

Columbia, SC 29208

Email: tckoesters@sc.edu