Identifying key market demand factors associated with high school basketball tournaments.
Cainfrone, Beth A. ; Zhang, James ; Pitts, Brenda 等
Introduction
Interscholastic sports are a fundamental student activity and
popular extracurricular activity in high schools. In the United States,
more than 7 million students regularly participate in high school
sports, comprising approximately 75% of all high school students
(National Federation of State High School Associations [NFHS], 2014). In
addition to the popularity to students, high school athletics can
provide excitement for their respective communities (Coakley, 2015;
NFHS, 2014). In fact, more than 500 million spectators attended high
school athletics events in 2011 (Howard, 2011). Additionally, some
people attend high school sporting events three times more often than
collegiate and professional sports combined (PlayOn! Sports, 2014).
Basketball is the most popular sport in terms of number of teams and
spectators, with about 170 million event attendees in 2011 (Howard,
2011; NFHS, 2013, 2014). Despite the popularity, little research can be
found on the understanding of high school sporting event attendees.
In the US, interest in high school sporting events is at an
all-time high. This interest is reflected in attendance and media
coverage via television and internet broadcasts of high school sporting
events, from regular season to state playoffs (PlayOn! Sports, 2014).
The attention has led to an arms race of sorts, similar to college
programs. There is an increased focus on winning, leading to competition
among high school athletic departments to provide better facilities,
equipment, and/or coaches' salaries (Coakley, 2015). However, many
high school athletic departments have struggled with the increase in
costs of program operations, Title IX compliance, budget competition
among sport teams within an athletic program, market competitions, and
budget cuts in state funding (Garcia, 2009; Pierce & Peterson,
2011).
Similarly, championship events at the district, regional, and state
levels are an important part of high school athletics and also major
revenue generation opportunities for the governing bodies. Yet, high
school state associations also face challenges in generating funding.
From a state high school athletic association vantage point, managing
state championships has increased in cost despite their increased
publicity in recent years. The impact of community support on the
financial success of high school sports is important (Bravo, 2004;
Pierce & Peterson, 2011). Given the revenue generation concerns,
many schools have turned to private funding/boosters, community support,
creative fundraising efforts, advertising, sponsorships, television
rights, and/or a "pay to play" option (Bussell & Pierce,
2011; Cook, 2013; Pierce & Peterson, 2011). High school associations
also rely on sponsorships, media rights, and ticket revenue of their
regional or playoff events. High school sports leaders, at both the
school level and state association level, would benefit from market
research on their consumers to better prepare and implement marketing
efforts, as well as to drive consumption/attendance or improve community
support.
Earlier sport marketing studies focused on answering who the
consumers were, how many there were, and where they were from. More
recent research focuses have progressed toward studying those tangible
perspectives explaining why people consume a sport product. One such a
perspective is the concept of market demand, which relates to
consumer-perceived influence or expectations towards the attributes of
the core product (Zhang, Lam, & Connaughton, 2003). Essentially,
market demand is a cluster of pull factors associated with the game that
an organization can offer to its new and returning spectators. It is
comprised of a multitude of belief (i.e., cognitive-oriented) variables
that may predict sport consumption behavior (Braunstein, Zhang, Trail,
& Gibson, 2005; Byon, Zhang, & Connaughton, 2013; Hansen &
Gauthier, 1989; Schofield, 1983). Previously, market demand research has
been utilized to identify key factors that influence spectators'
consumption, including attendance and economic spending at sporting
events, in a variety of settings, such as professional sports (e.g.,
NBA, minor league hockey, expansion teams, etc.), intercollegiate
athletics, and participatory sports (e.g., taekwondo). Although findings
of these studies can be useful references for guiding the formulation of
marketing plans for high school sports, unique market context and
environment associated with high school sports, such as comparatively
more parental and family involvement, local competition, and intensive
tournament schedule, may require specific considerations when developing
marketing procedures. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to
examine the sociodemographics of high school tournament attendees for
market segmentation purposes and explore the market demand factors of
these events, with relation to past and future consumption. Because high
school basketball is the most popular sport in the US in terms of the
number of teams and attendance according to the NFHS, we chose to
examine a high school basketball state tournament in this study.
Theoretical Background
High School Sports Market Environment Public high school athletics
are funded through the school's annual budget provided to the
school by the district or state (Bravo, 2004). In addition to state
funding, high school athletic budgets rely on revenue generated through
fundraising efforts from private donations of parents and community
supporters/ boosters. To offset the current wide-range of budget cuts
for educational services, schools are becoming more reliant on creative
revenue generations and commercialism to support the athletic
department, such as sponsorships, ticket sales, concessions, and
donations from boosters and community support (Bravo, 2004; Coakley,
2015; Pierce & Bussell, 2011). The concept of "pay to
play," by charging student activity fees, is also prevailing in
high schools, which at times is coupled by reduction in the number of
competitions, travel costs, equipment expenditures, and even an entire
sport in an effort to cope with financial shortage (Cook, 2013).
In an effort to maximize community support through activities such
as fundraising, advertising, sponsorships, or event attendance, it is
important to understand how high school teams typically receive the
support. Oftentimes, successful high school sport teams receive more
administrative attention and support, leading to more funding. For
example, a local high school football team that is of perennial state
champion caliber would receive local or possibly national publicity.
This may result in more stress on that school and program to be
successful, maintain the coaching staff, and provide better facilities.
This emphasis on winning can also lead to more parental, alumnus, and
community support, which may translate into increased booster giving,
sponsorship dollars, and income from event attendance (Pierce &
Peterson, 2011). The potential financial resources as a result of
winning are essential for maintaining and growing athletic programs.
Additionally, as parents and the community become more connected and
involved with high school sports, they are more likely to support
favorable budget measures when public funding is dis cussed and voted on
during political forums and elections (Garcia, 2009).
In fact, there is a conflicting paradox as high school sports have
become competitive and commercialized. Some private schools have adopted
recruiting techniques and provided scholarships to attract athletic
talents, just like college athletics. Similar to college athletics, high
school programs may be involved in an arms race against other schools
for funding and providing state-of-the-art facilities; however, on the
high school level it involves the local community. For example, Allen
High School in Texas has an 18,000-seat, $60-million football stadium,
which was funded through city approved bonds ("Allen High School
Facility," 2012). The support of the community comes from the
realization that the stadium and successful sport team can be a focus
and pride point for the city. To become a state champion and
continuously gain the recognition that this town may be interested in,
the school's football program has seen unprecedented financial
support from various sources ("Allen High School Facility,"
2012).
In the US, high school sports have a well-established competition
system that is comprised of district, regional, state, and even national
championships. The NFHS organizes and regulates rules, officiating,
coaching certifications, and competition (NFHS, 2014). The respective
state high school associations organize the state championships for the
sponsored activities. These governing bodies manage the playoff system
for each sport, such as hosting regional events leading to the state
championships (NFHS, 2014). The playoff and championship tournaments are
popular for the players, their families and friends, and the surrounding
communities, as they are a platform for the best teams to compete at a
high level for a coveted championship. Families and community members
often choose to travel to the regional and state championship games to
support the student-athletes. Revenue generated from regional and state
championship events provides increased resources for both the involved
teams, through subsequent community support, and the state association,
via sponsors, media, and ticket revenue. Hosting these events can also
be an economic boost and a source of pride for the host organization and
community involved. The host city may vary from year to year. Yet, the
draw of top competitions, attendees, businesses, and local media are
factors that may benefit a host city. Similar to other sporting events,
increased attendance generates revenue through the ticket sales,
concessions, merchandise, and other tourism expenditures in addition to
adding value to the event sponsorships. It is becoming increasingly
apparent that community support and event attendance are critical for
the survival and success of high school sports in the US.
It is important to note that high school basketball regional
tournaments have a number of unique characteristics, when compared to
other sporting events. High school basketball tournaments usually
feature a number of teams participating (e.g., 32 teams in the current
study: 16 boys and 16 girls teams), with multiple games usually being
held simultaneously in the afternoon and evening (e.g., six games in the
current study). The tournament event is usually held within a short
period of time (e.g., four days in the current study) in an effort to be
fiscally efficient for the host organization and the competing teams.
There is usually a large audience affiliated with one or possibly more
teams in some way (e.g., parents, same town). Thus, the
tournaments' characteristics lend themselves to further study of
their potential factors that may impact attendees. These unique
characteristics often lead to a large crowd, audience mobility,
intensive traffic, and strong consumer demand on venue accessibility,
such as parking, crowd control, traffic convenience, and facility
cleanliness. Due to the single-elimination mechanism of the tournament
and the small-scale event nature, local tourism attractions often play a
significant role in drawing consumers to the event (Byon & Zhang,
2010). Understanding the makeup of the event consumers and those factors
affecting event attendance would be beneficial for effectively marketing
and operating the event.
Consumption and Market Segmentation
Researchers often focus on past, present, and future consumption
behaviors when examining consumption levels of individuals (Mullin,
Hardy, & Sutton, 2007). In sports, game/event consumption can be
measured through game attendance, tournament event attendance, and event
sport tourism expenditure. Secondary revenue sources include annual
giving (boosters), merchandise, concessions, parking, program book,
stadium/arena signage/advertising, and sponsorships. One approach to
understanding the different levels of spectator game consumption is
through market segmentation. According to Mullin et al. (2007) and Pitts
and Stotlar (2013), market segmentation is central to the understanding
of sport consumer behavior. Market segmentation can provide crucial
information to better explain event attendance. Weinstein (1994)
indicated that market segmentation is the process of partitioning
markets into groups of potential customers with similar needs or
characteristics, who are likely to exhibit similar consumption
behaviors. Of the various segmentation procedures, sociodemographics
(state of being), psychographics (state of mind), and their
relationships to consumption behaviors are the most often adopted
approaches to study consumer behavior. Acknowledging the differences in
consumers' backgrounds and consumption frequencies and grouping
consumers accordingly into market segments are primary steps in the
marketing process. Specifically, understanding market segmentation,
sociodemographics, and market demand factors and their relationships to
consumer past attendance, future attendance, and economic tourism
spending is of concern in this study.
Researchers have identified a number of sociodemographic variables
that are associated with the level of sport event consumption, where
participation rates within activities are highly correlated with certain
demographics (Pitts & Stotlar, 2013). Attendance rates at different
events are highly correlated with certain demographic segments such as
gender, age, ethnicity, family income, family size, marital status,
education, and occupation. When considering high school basketball,
people most likely to attend are those related to the student body
(e.g., student athletes) of a high school (family, friends, students,
and faculty/staff). Previous findings were primarily derived from the
frequency counting of spectators, which are relevant to promotional
procedures used to attract new spectators from the targeted population.
To retain current spectators and enhance their own consumption levels,
sociodemographic variables need to be studied with other marketing
variables on how they function together to elevate attendance
frequencies (Williamson, Zhang, Pease, & Gaa, 2003). Beyond market
segmentation based on sociodemographics, consumer demand for the core
product features of a sport event would help explain the factors that
attract event attendance.
[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]
Market Demand in High School Sport Tournaments Market demand
factors are the cluster of pull factors associated with the provisions
and operations of the game events (Braunstein et al., 2005; Hansen &
Gauthier, 1989; Schofield, 1983; Zhang, Pease, Hui, & Michaud,
1995). Marketing research on these pull factors can influence sport
managers by knowing how and the extent to which they may entice consumer
response. Sport marketers could then utilize this information to develop
marketing strategies based on identifying the factors that influence
attendance. Previous market demand research has primarily focused on
intercollegiate athletics or professional sports in a variety of
settings (e.g., professional team sports, expansion franchises, spring
training, minor league hockey, women's professional basketball,
etc.). Because each level of sport from amateur to professional has been
found to have varying market demand factors, it is necessary to examine
high school sports due to their differences from the other levels. High
school sports have been virtually ignored in the literature.
Oftentimes, the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA; Fishbein &
Ajzen, 1975) was adopted in previous sport market demand studies (e.g.,
Byon et al., 2013; Kim, Zhang, & Ko, 2009). TRA is based on the
assumption that individual behavior is a direct outcome of behavior
intentions, which is a combination of individual belief and attitude
toward the behavior. People would have a positive attitude toward
performing the behavior if they thought that the outcome of performing
the behavior was positive. Attitude toward the behavior is influenced by
the individual's perceptions and beliefs about the consequences of
performing a behavior and his/her evaluation of the outcomes,
irrespective of whether the outcomes are positive or negative. Exposure
to different information leads to the formation of different knowledge
about the attitude object, which also reflects a person's past
experience. According to Fishbein and Ajzen (1975), there is a causal
relationship, both direct and indirect, from perception and belief to
the attitude object and behavior. If a person intends to influence
people's behavior, it is necessary for him/her to ensure people are
exposed to sufficient information and also that they alter their
knowledge about the attitude object in a social environment. As an
exploratory investigation into the marketing of high school sport
events, in the current study TRA was partially applied to examine the
direct influence of market demand factors to consumption behaviors. As
the concept of market demand is related to consumer-perceived influence
or expectations towards the attributes of the core product (Zhang, Lam,
et al., 2003), its factors represent perceptions and beliefs that
spectators usually develop from experiences, observations, and/or
exposures to promotional information. Representing perceptions and
beliefs in TRA, four potential market demand factors for high school
sport tournaments were identified through a comprehensive review of
literature (Figure 1): Event Attractiveness, Venue Accessibility,
Economic Consideration, and Local Attractions. Based on the popularity
of high school athletics and the increasing commercialization of high
school sports, athletic directors would benefit from research findings
on market demand factors associated with high school athletics,
especially those regional tournaments.
Event Attractiveness. In a basketball tournament, the game itself
is the core product. Event attractiveness relates to the elements of the
teams and players that comprise the core product. Individual player
skills, team playing style, team records, opportunity for
record-breaking performances, and closeness of competition are all
elements of event attractiveness. These have been frequently studied and
found to impact spectator attendance at sporting events (e.g., Hansen
& Gauthier, 1989; Kim et al., 2009; Schofield, 1983; Zapalac, Zhang,
& Pease, 2010; Zhang et al., 1995). Zhang, Lam, et al. (2003) were
among the first to identify market demand variables for professional
sports, determining Game Attractiveness, Economic Consideration, and
Marketing Promotions to be three factors, representing 12 variables that
were predictive of consumption. Byon, Zhang, and Connaughton (2010)
found that elements of event attractiveness, such as opposing team and
home team, played a significant role in professional team sporting event
consumption. On the collegiate side, Zapalac et al. (2010) also found
attractiveness impacted spectators' game attendance. It would
appear that the game attractiveness of a state high school championship,
with the top teams playing for a title, would be an important factor for
event attendees. Marketers would then be able to promote the event
focusing on this championship aspect.
Venue Accessibility. When operating sporting events, the event
management (athletic directors, marketing staff) usually has little
involvement in the process of core product. Instead, the management
staff primarily focuses on other product functions related to event
operations, particularly service activities associated with venue
accessibility and enjoyment. The quality of event operations often
affects the overall effectiveness of a tournament, and even promotes the
consumption levels of consumers (e.g., Zhang et al., 2007). A sporting
event with ease of entry and abundant parking is often more favorable to
attend than one without those amenities. Likewise, elements such as
crowd control and venue cleanliness may influence event attendees in
this situation. Zhang, Braunstein, Ellis, and Lam (2003) found while
studying minor league hockey that unlike major league sports, game
attendance relied more on economic considerations (such as ticket price
and ticket discount), convenience, and passion for sport than event
attractiveness. This concept of convenience appears relevant to the high
school basketball event situation. Applying the same logic to another
nonprofessional level of sport, namely high school competition, these
convenience/accessibility and economic factors warranted further
examination.
Economic Consideration. Economic consideration, such as ticket
price, event promotions, and concession costs, has been previously
identified as influencing spectator decision making in attending
sporting events (e.g., Byon et al., 2010; Hansen & Gauthier, 1989;
Schofield, 1983; Zhang et al., 2004; Zhang et al., 1995). This has been
consistent in different event types and levels. Braunstein's et al.
(2005) research on attendance at Major League Baseball spring training
events showed the role that economic consideration plays in attendance
at sporting events. Ticket price, in particular, was an area that seemed
to have a major impact on consumer decisions. Similarly, Zapalac et al.
(2010) found affordability to impact game attendance in collegiate
volleyball game events. As aforementioned, Zhang, Lam, et al. (2003)
found that these cost-related variables influence consumption levels and
should be examined as a means to understand and focus on what drives
consumer behavior. While this study was conducted with a focus on
professional level athletics, the findings were consistent with those
found in other areas of athletic events, showing the validity of these
variables in the prediction of consumption levels. This consistency and
validity information appears relevant at the high school level.
Local Attraction. In addition to the attractiveness, accessibility,
and economic consideration, there has been a growing recognition of the
relationship between sport and tourism in recent years (e.g., Gibson
1998, 2003; Gibson, Qi, & Zhang, 2008). Sport tourism is
"leisure-based travel that takes individuals temporarily outside of
their home communities to participate in physical activities, to watch
physical activities, or to venerate attractions associated with physical
activities" (Gibson, 1998, p. 49). Event sport tourism, where
participants travel to watch sports, is an important kind of sport
tourism (Gibson, 2003; Gibson et al., 2008). Crompton (2004) pointed out
that similar to mega sport events, small-scale sport events, such as
high school basketball tournament games, could considerably generate
consumer interest in local attractions, where destination image is an
important factor that likely exerts significant impact on the
decision-making process of sport tourists. In particular, these
smallscale, repeating events are often organized by a local community
and/or institutions, and usually focus on local attractions and
uniqueness. Byon and Zhang (2010) showed the relationship between
athletic achievement, sport identification, and destination image on
tourism behavior. They assessed small-scale sport events and noted that
four factors-Infrastructure, Attraction, Value, and
Activities--influenced destination image, which in turn influenced
consumer behavioral intentions. By studying this tourism factor, or
local attraction, marketing steps can be put into action to increase
attendance and as a result benefit the event, as well as the community
in which it is held.
Research Questions
This study conducted an in-depth synthesis and analysis of the
relevance and significance of segmenting high school basketball events
through sociodemographic and market demand perspectives. Specifically,
we sought to understand:
Q1. What are the sociodemographics of high school basketball
tournament attendees for market segmentation purposes?
Q2. Do the market demand factors (event attractiveness, venue
accessibility, economic consideration, and local attractions) hold true
to high school basketball tournament event?
Q3. What is the relationship between the market demand factors
(event attractiveness, venue accessibility, economic consideration, and
local attractions) with past and future attendance?
Q4. What is the influence of the market demand factors (event
attractiveness, venue accessibility, economic consideration, and local
attractions) on economic tourism spending?
Methods
Participants
Participants (N = 647) were attendees of a high school basketball
sectionals (regionals) tournament in a large southeastern city. The
sectionals tournament featured both boys and girls teams, and teams
advanced to the state championship via a single-elimination system.
The tournament events were held over a four-day period in a large
multi-purpose arena with over 75,000 seats. For the high school
basketball tournament, the facility was set up with six basketball
courts, and games were held simultaneously during an afternoon session
and evening session. A nominal admission fee was charged for event
attendance.
Instruments
Based on a comprehensive review of literature (e.g., Hansen &
Gauthier, 1989; Kasky, 1994; Lu & Pitts, 2004; Pitts, Lu, Ayers,
& Lucas, 2004; Schofield, 1983; Zhang et al., 1995), a questionnaire
was developed that included three sections: (a) sociodemographics, (b)
market demand factors, and (c) consumption variables. The
sociodemographic section included the following variables: gender,
ethnicity, age, role in attendance, education level, occupation, marital
status, number of children, household income, and companion(s) to the
event. The market demand section of the survey included the following
four factors: Event Attractiveness, Economic Consideration, Venue
Accessibility, and Local Attraction, with a total of 14 items (see Table
2) on a 5-point scale ("no influence" to "strong
influence"). To measure sport consumption behavior, two dichotomous
(yes/no) items assessed previous and future event attendance. Monetary
budget spent on the trip to the tournament was one item measuring the
range of budget spent for this event (Pitts & Stotlar, 2013; Zhang
et al., 2007). A preliminary questionnaire was first reviewed by a panel
of three experts for content clarity, relevance, and representativeness.
Following the feedback mainly in the areas of formatting, and wording,
edits and modifications to the survey questionnaire were made.
Procedures
A convenience sampling method (i.e., mall intercept technique) was
employed by positioning survey stations in major entrances and hallways
of the venue. Trained research assistants helped with collecting the
data via paper and pencil. Of the four event days, survey administration
was conducted at two randomly selected tournament days. Following the
institutional review board's guidelines for the use of human
subjects, participation in this study was voluntary.
Data Analyses
Descriptive statistics of the sociodemographic, consumption, and
market demand variables were conducted, as well as cross tabulations on
the sociodemographic variables. A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was
conducted to assess factor validity of the market demand factors. Prior
to the CFA, data normality check was conducted via evaluation of
skewness and kurtosis values for the items. For the skewness cut-off
value, an absolute value of 3.0 would be considered extreme. For the
kurtosis threshold value, an absolute score greater than 3.0 would be
considered extreme (Chou & Bentler, 1995). Following Hair, Black,
Babin, and Anderson's (2010) suggestion, multiple fit indexes were
used that included the following: (a) Chi-square, (b) Comparative fit
index (CFI, >.90), (c) Root mean square error of approximation
(RMSEA, < .08), and (d) Standardized root mean square residual (SRMR,
< .08).
Convergent validity was assessed via statistical significance of
standardized factor loadings (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988). In
addition, discriminant validity was tested by means of correlation
between constructs, and comparison of squared correlation between
constructs and AVE value (Fornell & Larcker, 1981; Kline, 2010).
Following suggestions of previous studies, three reliability tests were
conducted that included: (a) Cronbach's Alpha ([alpha]), (b)
Composite reliability (CR), and (c) Average Variance Extracted (AVE).
The threshold for a and CR was .70, respectively (Hair et al., 2010),
and cut-off criterion for AVE was .50 (Fornell & Larcker, 1981).
Upon confirmation of the factor validity via CFA, t-tests were
conducted to determine importance of the market demand factors on event
attendance based on mean score comparisons. General linear model
determined the influence of the market demand factors on previous
attendance, future attendance, and total budget spent on the trip.
Results
Cross tabulations of the sociodemographic characteristics (see
Table 1) revealed that core consumers of the state high school
basketball tournament were a fairly even mix of men (55.6%) and women.
Of the respondents, most had ethnic backgrounds of African
American/Black (44.0%) or Caucasian (53.6%). The majority of
participants was between the ages of 36-55 years old (53.6%) and married
(51.7%). The majority were event spectators or participants (22.3%).
Likewise, the majority was Caucasians or African Americans, who were
either high school students or young to middle age adults with children
and middle to high income levels.
Descriptive statistics for the market demand variables are shown in
Table 2. A total of 14 items were subject to a CFA with maximum
likelihood (ML) estimation method to examine the factor validity of the
market demand factors. Prior to CFA, we tested data normality, finding
all skewness and kurtosis values for the market demand items were well
within the acceptable threshold, indicating that data distribution was
normal (Table 2). The measurement model did not fit the data well ([chi
square](71) = 411.10; CFI =.87; RMSEA = .086 (.078-.095), and SRMR =
.084). One item, "closeness of competition" was found to be
statistically nonsignificant. After deleting the item, the four-factor
model with 13 items fit the data well ([chi square](59) = 254.94; CFI
=.92; RMSEA = .07 (.063-.081), and SrMr = .063). All factor loadings
were statistically significant with expected direction (p < .001),
indicating that convergent validity was established (see Table 3;
Anderson & Gerbing, 1988). Discriminant validity was assessed with
bi-variate correlation. All correlation coefficients were less than the
suggested criterion (> .85; Kline, 2010), ranging from .29 (Economic
Consideration and Event Attractiveness) to .75 (Economic Consideration
and Venue Accessibility). More rigorous, Fornell and Larcker's
(1981) method (i.e., comparing squared correlation with AVE) revealed
all AVE value for the latent variable exceeded squared correlations
between constructs, except for Venue Accessibility, indicating that
discriminant validity was promising but only partially confirmed (see
Table 4).
As for reliability test, alpha coefficients were .74, .60, .81, and
.71, respectively for Event Attractiveness, Economic Consideration,
Venue Accessibility, and Local Attraction factors, indicating that these
factors were overall of acceptable internal consistency (Bagozzi &
Yi, 1988). Composite reliability also exceeded the threshold (Bagozzi
& Yi, 1988), ranging from .61 (Economic Consideration) to .81 (Venue
Accessibility). However, AVE values for two latent constructs (Economic
Consideration and Venue Accessibility) were lower than the cut-off
criterion of .50. Overall, items measuring each of the four constructs
showed reasonable internal consistency, pending further validation of
the items (see Table 4).
One-sample t-tests with adjusted alpha level revealed that mean
Economic Consideration, Event Attractiveness, and Venue Accessibility
factor scores were significantly (p < .05) greater than the
respective mid-point score of each factor, indicating that the attendees
considered these three factors important when making a decision to
attend the event. Conversely, mean Local Attraction factor score was
significantly (p < .05) lower than the mid-point score of this
factor, indicating that the attendees did not consider this factor
important when making a decision to attend the event. With respect to
the relevance of the market demand factors, general linear model
analyses revealed that they were significantly (Wilks' [LAMBDA] =
46.945; p < .05) related to whether the attendees attended this event
in previous years, where Event Attractiveness was the significant (p
< .05) contributor to the relationship, explaining a total of 24.1%
variance. However, the market demand factors were not found to be
significantly (Wilks' [LAMBDA] = 1042.683; p > .05) related to
whether the attendees would attend the event in the future. Regression
analyses revealed that of the market demand factors, Local Attraction
was significantly (F = 34.428; p < .05) predictive of the total
budget spent on making the trip, with 5.6% variance explained.
Discussion
Through an abridged adoption of the TRA, this study examined the
direct impact of market demand factors in terms of event attractiveness
(core game product), event operations (venue accessibility), economic
considerations, and local attractions, which were deemed uniquely
associated with a high school basketball tournament event. Further, the
relationship between these factors and game consumption variables, along
with economic tourism spending, were explored. It is anticipated that a
well-developed understanding and discussion on these issues would help
provide sport-specific and event-specific information on the marketing
of a high school basketball tournament.
High school sports are very popular in the US and the associated
championship events are often highly publicized and well-attended
events. According to NFHS, high school sports event attendance was 510
million in 2011, two and a half times the attendance of college sports
events (Howard, 2011). Basketball was the most popular with the highest
attendance. Yet even though a comprehensive review of literature
revealed that event attendance and other forms of financial support to
high school basketball are critical for this sport to survive and thrive
in the US, research investigations on marketing issues associated with
high school basketball events have been rather limited and rarely
assessed. According to several scholars (e.g., Mullin et al., 2007;
Pitts & Stotlar, 2013), analyses of consumer variables, such as
factors affecting decision making for sport event attendance, are
fundamental for formulating effective marketing strategies to promote
the events. Accordingly, in order to attract and retain spectators for
high school basketball tournament events, it is necessary for the
hosting organization, sport association, and teams to evaluate those
factors that may affect game attendance. Periodic evaluation should be
conducted to determine target markets, analyze market situation and
environment, develop marketing objectives and strategies, and provide
feedback about the implementation of an overall marketing plan.
Sociodemographics for Market Segmentation
Findings of this study revealed that core consumers of the state
high school basketball tournament were Caucasians and African Americans,
who were either school students or young to middle-aged adults with
children. Given that the tournament was comprised of 32 different
teams/schools, from different locations throughout the state, this
provides a broad representation, compared to examining just one high
school game. We also found attendees had middle to high income levels.
According to Simmons Market Research Bureau (2010) and Zhang,
Pennington-Gray, et al. (2003), people most likely to attend
professional men's sporting events are young to middle-aged
Caucasian males with good financial resources. Young to middle-aged
Caucasian females are most likely to attend professional and amateur
female sporting events. Unlike professional sport events, the
sociodemographic characteristics identified in the current study
suggested that high school basketball event promotional activities
should target Caucasian and African American families with middle to
high income, who have children in middle or high school. Intuitively,
event participants (e.g., athletes, cheerleaders, coaches, and
administrators) and their families, friends, and affiliated schools,
residential areas, and athletic conferences would be interested in
attending the tournament events; although this study did not investigate
these variables, findings from Williamson and Zhang (2003), who studied
consumers of a collegiate sport tournament, confirmed these insights.
The segmentation information revealed in this study is also beneficial
in attracting potential event sponsors or advertisers, who would
capitalize on their product exposure to consumers with middle to high
incomes.
Different sporting events attract different sponsorship
opportunities, and thus, different sponsoring companies with applicable
sets of objectives. Professional sports, college sports, Olympic sports,
and Paralympics sports each attract sponsorship from companies aiming to
target the markets unique to the event (Nam & Lee, 2013).
Sponsorship of high school sports has become common practice of
businesses and of sport marketing plans (Pierce & Peterson, 2011;
Pierce & Bussell, 2011). According to Wartella (2009), in a study on
sponsorship in interscholastic sports, sponsors of high school athletic
associations engage in this activity to develop brand association and
loyalty in the teen market. The basketball tournament crowd demographic
finding supports this sponsorship strategy of capitalizing on the teen
market, but also suggests there is an opportunity to reach the parents,
who have moderate to high incomes.
Relevance and Importance of Market Demand Factors
With regards to the market demand variables, the findings indicated
that Event Attractiveness was a key factor of pulling consumers to the
state high school basketball tournament. This includes variables of
teams playing, their records, the crowd, and the final round. This was
impactful both for the current event, as well as a contributor to past
attendance, explaining 24.1% of the variance. The finding of Event
Attractiveness being an important factor is consistent with past
research on professional sports, collegiate sports, and event marketing
literature (Byon et al., 2010; Kim et al., 2009; Schofield, 1983;
Zapalac et al., 2010; Zhang, Lam, et al., 2003). As a marketer of the
event, a focus on promoting the teams would be a draw for potential
consumers. When considering a regionally hosted event, where potential
local consumers may not be aware of the teams playing, the impact of the
games and their records may be a selling point. For example, advertising
that promotes "Catch the 21-0 North High School take on the 18-2
South High School" would appeal to those who are driven to watch
teams with good records.
Economic Consideration was a factor that was identified to be
influencing attendance, similar to past research on college and
professional sports (Byon et al., 2010; Chen-Yueh, Ti-Hsiu, &
Yen-Kuang, 2012; Zhang et al., 1995; Zhang et al., 2007; Zhang,
Braunstein, et al., 2003). Economic Consideration significantly
influenced many consumer decisions about the sports, venues, and event
plans. In assessing the ticketing structure of high school athletic
tournaments, the organizing body should be aware that there is price
sensitivity among the spectators and aim to create a price level that
supports the sociodemographics of the attendees.
In previous studies, Venue Accessibility was often considered an
important game support element for event operations, not necessarily
related to the core product features (Byon et al., 2013). Due to the
nature and set-up of a high school basketball tournament, Venue
Accessibility was actually a major consideration by the event attendees
of the tournament, indicating that the market demand factors are
situational in terms of sport event contexts. Essentially,
consumers' expectations towards the attributes of the core product
would differ according to the product line; in fact, this notion was
consistent with research findings of a number of previous studies
(Braunstein et al., 2005; Byon et al., 2013; Hansen & Gauthier,
1989; Zhang, Lam, et al., 2003). For any given sport event, the
marketers need to identify the key factors pulling consumers to the
game; thus, organizers of high school basketball tournaments should take
care in selecting the venue itself, noting the ease of getting to the
venue and parking impact the event attendees. Selecting a venue that is
accessible will help appease this consumer demand.
Local Attraction was not found to be a factor that was important to
consumers when making the decision to attend. This suggests that people
attend the tournament event because of the teams themselves, the cost,
and the ease of accessing the venue; whereas, local attraction is not a
major consideration. However, Local Attraction did influence the event
attendees' financial spending while in town for the event. Unlike
professional and collegiate sports, locations of high school sectionals
and championships are often mobile, changing from one year to another,
so families have to travel to events; thus, local attractions can play a
role in event attendance decisions. This finding may make practical
sense that available local tourism attractions can be appealing to event
attendees in terms of extended stays, visiting the attractions, and
increased spending; according to Byon and Zhang (2010), destination
image and attractions do make a difference when a consumer decides to
attend or not to attend a sport event, and on how long to stay. Thus,
depending on the goals and objectives of a state high school athletic
association, understanding the relevance of local attractions can help
decide where to locate the regional or championship events.
The market demand factors were not found to be related to whether
the attendees would attend the event in the future. These results may be
a reflection of the event itself. With the state high school basketball
tournament featuring the top 32 teams, perhaps people are unsure of
attending in the future because their attendance is reliant upon their
favorite teams making the tournament next year. With this uncertainty,
the attractiveness of the game might not impact their intent to attend
in the future, and not be a reflection of a poorly run event. This
suggests there may be other factors that are influencing future
attendance, such as socio-motivation, attachment to players or teams,
record of winning by the home team, and certainty of qualification to
state tournament.
Of the four market demand factors, only Local Attraction was found
to impact economic spending. While an attractive location with many
surrounding activities will not drive consumers to the sporting event,
it will lead to the attendees spending more money. Similar to findings
of past research (e.g., Byon & Zhang, 2010; Williamson & Zhang,
2003), local attraction has been found to influence behavior concerning
monetary spending. In sport tourism literature, this theoretical notion
has been tested in spectator-based events (Byon & Zhang, 2010) and
participant-based events (Kaplanidou, Jordan, Funk, & Ridinger,
2012), suggesting that the host organization and city promote local
attractions through destination marketing. When spectators travel, they
spend money on local businesses; so, even high school sporting events
could bring economic impact. This is an attractive economic
consideration for visitor centers or those who bid for events, and it
would be a selling point for hosting the event. As spectators travel to
the event, they are spending money on local attractions and impacting
the host community. It is important for the host cities to promote the
local attractions to the visitors so that they are aware of what the
city has to offer. Additionally, this would be an opportunity for event
hosts to obtain sponsorships with local restaurants and attractions.
There is no doubt that the organizing bodies must focus on event
attractiveness as the primary promotional mechanism (Byon & Zhang,
2010; Gibson et al., 2008; Kaplanidou & Gibson, 2010, 2012;
Williamson & Zhang, 2003).
Summary, Limitations, and Future Research
High school athletic departments have relied on public funding and
private donations to fund their programs. An increase in family and
community support may help defer some of the costs of managing the
sports, especially with current economic constraints. When high school
teams are successful on the field/court, support may be more prevalent.
High school sectional tournaments may prove to be an area to foster fan
involvement and grow the community support. Tournaments and
championships can be a revenue stream for high schools. Because this is
becoming increasingly more important, it then becomes increasingly
important for the administrators to be better marketers. Consumer
segments, such as family, students, faculty and staff, friends, and high
school sports fans, must be identified and analyzed. Through market
research such as this study, the high school sports marketers can make
strategic marketing decisions toward optimal plans that have better
chances for success.
A number of limitations associated with this study are recognized.
A basketball tournament event may have yielded factors that are
different from other high school playoff events, especially those that
are gender specific, such as softball or football, or those with less
frequency, such as a one-day swim meet or one-time games, such as
soccer, rather than a four-day span.
In the current investigation, those factors influencing the
attendance of a state high school basketball tournament event were
studied from only one perspective, namely market demand. Whereas this
study presented a foundation for high school marketing research,
including segmentation and market demand, future research can focus on
obtaining a better understanding of attractions and social motives for
various sport events. This information would be imperative to hosting a
successful high school tournament. Especially, those concepts such as
fan involvement, social and community support, and family contributions
should be explored. High school sports have become commercialized and
often mirror collegiate athletics in terms of their organizational and
management styles, and even facilities in some cases. There is a great
need for more research into high school sports in general, within and
involving different aspects, to make better informed decisions on
marketing and management. Additionally, in this exploratory study, only
direct relationships of the market demand factors to consumption
variables were examined, in which attitudinal concepts and constructs
were not included. According to Fishbein and Ajzen (1975), attitude is
an important component of the TRA that mediate the relationship between
perception and behavior. Byon et al. (2013) and Kim, Zhang, Jackson,
Connaughton, and Kim (2013) have identifed various attitudinal concepts,
such as perceived value, percieved benefits, and customer satisfaction,
that could partially mediate the relaitonship between sport market
demand factor and consumption behavior. Future studies are encouraged to
take these into consideration.
Beth A. Cianfrone, PhD, is an associate professor in the Department
of Kinesiology and Health at Georgia State University. Her research
interests include sport consumer behavior, sport communication, and
sponsorship and advertising.
James Zhang, PhD, is a professor in the Department of Kinesiology
at the University of Georgia. His research interests include market
demand factors that affect various sport behaviors.
Brenda Pitts, EdD, is a professor in the Department of Kinesiology
and Health at Georgia State University. Her research interests include
sport business, sport marketing, market demand factors, and sport
consumer behavior.
Kevin K. Byon, PhD, is an associate professor of sport management
in the Department of Kinesiology at Indiana University. His research
interests include sport marketing and sport consumer behavior.
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Table 1
Demographic Variables of Event Attendees (N = 647)
Variable Category N %
Gender Male 355 55.6
Female 284 44.4
Age 13-18 140 21.8
19-24 68 10.5
25-35 99 15.4
36-45 149 23.2
46-55 132 20.6
56-65 34 5.3
Over 65 19 3.0
Ethnicity White 339 53.6
Black 278 44
Asian 7 1.1
Hispanic 4 0.6
Other 4 0.6
Marital Status Married 329 51.7
Single 240 37.7
Divorced 33 5.2
Living with partner 19 3.0
Other 15 2.4
Household Income Under $15,000 43 7.8
$15,000-19,999 15 2.7
$20,000-29,999 26 4.7
$30,000-39,999 66 11.9
$40,000-49,999 71 12.8
$50,000-74,999 131 23.7
$75,000-99,999 60 10.8
$100,000-149,999 82 14.8
Over $150,000 59 10.7
Children in 0 204 36.0
Household 1 133 23.5
2 127 22.4
3-4 90 15.9
5+ 12 2.1
Occupation Tradesperson/Skilled 41 6.9
Clerk 24 4.1
Education 159 26.9
Homemaker 22 3.7
Military 8 1.4
Professional 153 25.9
Technical 44 7.4
Other 140 23.7
Education Elementary 12 1.9
Junior High 50 7.8
High School 193 30.1
Undergraduate 192 30.0
Some Post-Graduate 70 10.9
Masters 86 13.4
Doctorate 20 3.1
Other 18 2.8
Table 2 Descriptive Statistics for Market Demand Variables
Variable M SD Skewness Kurtosis
Event Attractiveness
The record of teams 3.43 1.36 -.51 -.91
A chance to see the 4.06 1.20 -1.25 .62
top seeds
A chance to see which 3.98 1.22 -1.17 .42
team makes the finals
* Closeness of competition 3.20 1.31 -.32 -.93
Economic Consideration
Price of the ticket 3.40 1.38 -.40 -.98
Price of concession 3.18 1.47 -.19 -1.31
Variety of concession 3.08 1.33 -.12 -1.03
Local Attraction
Other sporting events 2.84 1.29 .07 -.96
in the city
Other activities taking 2.60 1.28 .27 -.94
place nearby
Venue Accessibility
Accessibility of venue 3.40 1.31 -.46 -.82
Availability of parking 3.23 1.37 -.35 -1.05
Size of facility 3.37 1.36 -.43 -.96
Staff professionalism 3.53 1.29 -.56 -.68
and courteousness of staff
Crowd behavior 3.41 1.37 -.45 -.97
Note. * Item was deleted during CFA procedure due to low factor loading
Table 3
Factor Loadings of the Measurement Model
Variables Indicator Loadings
Event Attractiveness (3 items)
The record of teams .42
A chance to see the top seeds .87
A chance to see which team makes .87
the finals
Economic Consideration (3 items)
Price of the ticket .35
Price of concession .60
Variety of concession .76
Local Attraction (2 items)
Other sporting events in the city .76
Other activities taking place nearby .71
Venue Accessibility (5 items)
Accessibility of venue .64
Availability of parking .64
Size of facility .66
Staff professionalism and .72
courteousness of staff
Crowd behavior .68
Table 4
Construct Correlations, Squared Correlations, Cronbach's Alpha,
Composite Reliability (CR), and Average Variance Extracted (AVE)
Construct Economic Local Event
Consideration Attraction Attractiveness
Economic Consideration --
Local Attraction .44 (.19) --
Event Attractiveness .29 (.08) .21 (.04) --
Venue Accessibility .75 (.56) .45 (.20) .46 (.21)
Construct Venue [alpha] CR AVE
Accessibility
Economic Consideration .60 .61 .35
Local Attraction .71 .70 .53
Event Attractiveness .74 .78 .56
Venue Accessibility -- .81 .80 .44
Notes: All correlations are statistically significant at
.001 level. Parentheses are squared correlations.
