Marketing a social experience: how celebration of subculture leads to social spending during a sport event.

Xing, Xiaoyan ; Chalip, Laurence ; Green, B. Christine 等

Introduction

Attendees at sport events typically do more than watch sport or attend ancillary activities arranged by event organizers. Attendees also socialize, dine out, shop, join local tours, and drink. The event goer's overall experience therefore incorporates these experiences as well as event entertainments. Indeed, the attractiveness of events is elevated when attendees can incorporate an array of tourism experiences when attending an event (Chalip & McGuirty, 2004), particularly when the experiences impart a sense of festivity (Handelman, 1990). Festive experiences are important not merely because they are an added attraction to the event, but also because they engender positive emotions that can stimulate spending by attendees, which enhances the economic value of the event (Chalip & Leyns, 2002; Taks et al., 2013; Wang & Kaplanidou, 2013).

The opportunity for attendees to parade and celebrate subculture is a key to the sense of festivity, and is therefore core to an event's appeal (Green, 2001). Green and Chalip's (1998) ethnographic account of a women's football tournament demonstrated that participants came to the event to share and affirm their identities as football players. Thus, they were motivated to travel to the event, rather than to the site, in order to socialize with other players who shared similar identities. Tournament participants who used the tournament as a social opportunity focused their activities and, presumably, their spending on socializing through which they could parade and celebrate their shared identities as football players, such as drinking, shopping, dining out, and joining tours. We define spending for these activities as "social spending." This is consistent with other work showing that subcultures can organize themselves around shared forms of consumption (Algesheimer, Dholakia, & Herrmann, 2005; Yoder, 1997).

Although the literature demonstrates that events can be organized to enhance a sense of festival (Ehrenreich, 2007; Veno & Veno, 1992), the pathways by which social spending is motivated remain unidentified. Previous work has focused on social behaviors associated with celebration and spending, but has not determined the underlying psychological bases for spending that can support socializing at an event--that is, social spending. From the standpoint of marketing communications and event design, it would be useful to understand the precursors to social spending in order to lay the necessary foundation for formulating marketing communications and designing event elements. So doing should enhance the event's appeal, and increase the aggregate economic impact (Green, 2001; Taks et al., 2013). The purpose of this study is to test a model of social spending at an event. The model is tested in the context of a national women's flag football tournament for which the football player identity and a sense of festival have previously been shown to be salient and intertwined (Green & Chalip, 1998).

Literature Review

Sport Subcultures and Social Motivation

Participants in a sport become socialized into sets of values and beliefs that are particular to that sport (Fine, 1987; Wheaton, 2007). They learn and internalize the language and behaviors that mark them as insiders. Their involvement in the sport's subculture can thereby affect their consumption choices (Schouten & McAlexander, 1995; Wheaton, 2000), including their preferences for sport-related travel (Green & Jones, 2005; Kim & Chalip, 2010). In order for sport events, especially those that seek participants, to become optimally attractive to their target markets (Green & Chalip, 1998; Veno & Veno, 1992), they need to foster social spending by attendees (Green, 2001; O'Brien, 2007). This is important because it enables the event to instantiate the sport's subculture by cultivating socialization through which attendees can parade and celebrate their shared involvement in the subculture (Kemp, 1999; Snelgrove & Wood, 2010). This is a form of social motivation, which has been shown to play a vital role in leisure behavior generally (Beard & Ragheb, 1983), including travel (Ryan & Glendon, 1998) and sport event participation (Fairer-Wessels, 2013).

Identity

As participants become socialized into a subculture, they incorporate it into their identity (Donnelly & Young, 1988; Merolla, Serpe, Stryker, & Schultz, 2012). Thus, the values and beliefs associated with the subculture become integral to their sense of self. The more highly involved they are in the subculture, the greater their identification with it (Anderson, 2009; Stryker & Serpe, 1982). An athlete's identity as a participant in a particular sport is consequently a useful proxy for the salience and significance that participation in the sport has for them.

Identity has two aspects, which are closely related to one another (Shamir, 1992; Stets & Burke, 2003). The first has to do with sense of self, which is self-identity; the second has to do with how people believe themselves to be viewed by others, which is social identity. So, for example, "I am a football player" would represent self-identity as a football player, and "Others see me as a football player" would represent social-identity as a football player. Since the two forms of identity are jointly represented in identity, both need to be measured in order to obtain a balanced appraisal.

Since identity can be a proxy for subcultural involvement (Anderson, 2009; Stryker & Serpe, 1982), which is expected to result in a desire to socialize with others who share an identification with the subculture (Green & Chalip, 1998; Schouten & McAlexander, 1995), the first hypothesis to be derived from the literature is:

H1a: Higher levels of identity with the sport subculture will lead to stronger social motivations for attending an event.

Sense of Community

Sarason's (1974) seminal work demonstrated that a sense of community is fundamental to the effective function of human groups. He defined it as the feeling of being supported by a larger community who share a sense of emotional connection. It is experienced as affection for and attachment to the community (Townley & Kloss, 2009)--emotions that are nurtured by a shared system of practices, concerns, resources, and interests, which engender a binding sense of membership (Nowell & Boyd, 2010; Xu, Perkins, & Chun Chung Chow, 2010).

Sense of community has been found to be strongest in settings with strong social support and a focus on members' performance (Pretty, 1990). Not surprisingly, then, recent studies (Chalip, Lin, Green, & Dixon, 2013; Green & Chalip, 2004; Warner, Dixon, & Chalip, 2012) have found it to be vital for the effective functioning of sport organizations. Sense of community has been shown to drive the satisfaction and commitment of event volunteers (Green & Chalip, 2004), organize the ways that varsity and club athletes interpret their sporting experience (Warner, Dixon, & Chalip, 2012), and mediate the effects that friendships and coaching have on the satisfaction and future intentions of families in a community sport club (Chalip et al., 2013).

Identification with a group (Mannarini, Rochira, & Talo, 2012; Obst & White, 2005) and social motivation (Fairley & Tyler, 2012; Rosenblatt, Cheshire, & Lawrence, 2009) have each been shown to affect sense of community. These findings lead to the following two hypotheses:

H1b: Higher levels of identity as a football player will lead to a higher level of sense of community at the event.

H2: A stronger social motivation for attending the event will lead to a higher level of sense of community at the event.

[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]

Spending at Events

A great deal of research has been done on spending by event attendees, largely to determine if the aggregate spend by attendees renders a positive economic impact, because an event's economic impact depends on the volume of attendee spending (Mondello & Rishe, 2004). Less work has been done to break down the ways that budget allocations may be affected by variations in the experiences an event affords. This is important because some work suggests that the quality of social experiences at an event are affected, at least in part, by the nature of consumption at the event (Green & Chalip, 1998; Schouten & McAlexander, 1995). So, for example, female football players at a national tournament find added value in the event when they invest in social interactions by dining, drinking, shopping, and/or touring together (Green & Chalip, 1998). Further, spending patterns at an event can vary substantially among attendees with the result that the quality of social engagement also varies (Taks et al., 2013).

Although higher levels of total spending can have a negative effect on attendees' evaluation of an event, higher levels of social spending by attendees, especially on food and drink, can positively affect attendees' evaluation of an event (Rong-Da Liang, Chen, Tung, & Hu, 2013). Thus, event budgets that skew toward social spending render more positive overall experiences for attendees than do event budgets that do not. Recent research demonstrates that the social interactions enabled at a sport event do affect attendee spending (Uhrich & Benkenstein, 2012), although research has not yet examined the effect on allocations specific to social spending. Nevertheless, the underlying theory (Uhrich & Koenigstorfer, 2009), suggests that they should. This leads to the following two hypotheses:

H3a: Participants with a stronger social motivation for attending the event will allocate a greater proportion of spending on social activities during the event.

H3b: Participants with a higher sense of community at the event will allocate a greater proportion of spending on social activities during the event.

The five hypotheses predict a set of relationships among the variables. Those are illustrated in Figure 1.

Method

Context

The three-day event is a national women's flag football tournament that has been hosted annually in Key West, Florida, since 1992. The tournament takes place over President's Day weekend in February. It is open to any women's flag football team that chooses to enter. All players must be over 18 years of age. It is estimated that the event brings over 1,000 tourists to Key West, including the women football players, team supporters, and officials. Ethnographic descriptions of the host city, the format and structure of women's flag football, and the social context associated with the tournament have been reported elsewhere (Green & Chalip, 1998).

Sample

Data were collected from 299 women football players competing at the tournament. They ranged in age from 19 to 38 years (M = 28.7). They had participated in the event for an average of 3.35 years (SD = 2.42). The majority of the participants had a high school education (42%) or a college education (34%) with an annual personal income of between $20,000-$34,999 (34%) and $35,000-$49,999 (32%). As a result of incomplete responses to the itemized expenditure questions, 81 cases were excluded from data analysis. Independent t-tests comparing levels of age, education, and personal income between the dropped group and the retained group showed no significant differences (p > 0.05). Thus, it is assumed that the 218 surveys retained for analysis are a representative sample.

Procedure

This study used a self-administered survey instrument. Specifically, each respondent was provided a copy of the survey with a clipboard and a pencil so that they could complete the survey at the football field. Two graduate students were trained to collect the data. The graduate students delivered and collected the surveys over the three days of the tournment. Team captains of all the registered teams were contacted in advance by the third author, informed about the study, and asked for their cooperation. The questionnaire was administered at the field immediately after each of the two competing teams at a game finished their competition. This timing of questionnaire delivery was recommended by event organizers and endorsed by the team captains. Consequently, data collection occurred throughout the day. A total of 24 teams participated in the survey with an average number of 12 players per team (SD = 4).

Materials

The instrument was designed to measure the participants' football identity, social motivation for attending the event, sense of community at the event, total spending and patterns of spending during the event. All the psychological constructs (i.e., football identity, social motivation, and sense of community) were measured on six-point Likert-type scales ranging from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree." In order to control for response biases, a few items were reverse scored. Before data analysis, reverse scored items were recoded to be consistent in direction with other items such that stronger effects were represented by greater numerical values.

Football identity. The football identity construct used composite measures consisting of items from the Identity Salience Scale (Shamir, 1992) and the Social Commitment Scale (Callero, 1985; Shamir, 1992). Both scales have been shown to have internal consistencies ranging from 0.82 to .89, and to show expected patterns of relationships to other measures of role identity in a leisure context. Because the two scales have previously been found to be highly correlated (Shamir, 1992), we checked their correlation in this study. The two were highly correlated; r= .74, p < .001. Thus, in this study the sums of item scores from each scale were used to measure the latent football identity factor in data analysis.

The original Identity Salience Scale consists of seven items measuring a person's social identity (Self ID). Four items were selected from the original scale independently by the last two authors. Their choices were identical, and it was agreed that these were most appropriate for describing women's identity as a football player. Three items asked the participant to rate whether being a football player: (1) describes the participant, (2) allows the participant to express the self, and (3) affirms the participant's values. The fourth item asked the participant whether she had strong feelings about her identity as a football player.

The Social Commitment Scale measures the extent to which a person perceives it to be important for others to view her in terms of a given identity (Social ID). Four items were independently selected from the original 8-item scale by the last two authors. Their choices were identical, and it was agreed that after being worded specifically for the women's football context, these were the most appropriate: (1) many people think of me in terms of being a football player, (2) other people think that football is important to me, (3) it is important to my friends that I continue as a football player, and (4) many of the people that I know are not aware that I play football.

Social motivation. Social motivation for attending the tournament (SOC) was measured by three items from the social motive subscale of the Leisure Motivation Scale (Beard & Ragheb, 1983), for which the internal reliability is reported to be above .90. The subscale has been shown in other work to predict significantly travel choice and preferred tourist activities (Kim & Chalip, 2004; Ryan & Glendon, 1998). The three items used to gauge participants' social motivation asked the participants to rate the degree to which each of the following was a reason that they came to the tournament: (1) to gain a feeling of belonging, (2) to interact with other women football players, and (3) to gain the respect of others.

Sense of community. The women football players' sense of community at the event (COM) was measured using four items adapted from the Sense of Community Scale (Nasar & Julian, 1995). The original scale consists of 11 items. Nasar and Julian report that the scale has satisfactory internal reliability (a = 0.87), as well as good discriminant and convergent validity. Applications of the four items used in this study have also demonstrated good predictive validity in sport contexts (Costa, Chalip, Green, & Simes, 2006; Green & Chalip, 2004).

Participants were asked to rate four statements: (1) I am quite similar to most people attending the tournament, (2) if I feel like talking, I can generally find someone at the tournament to talk to right away, (3) if there were a serious problem at the tournament, the people here could get together to solve it, and (4) if I had an emergency, even people I do not know at this tournament would be willing to help.

Event spending. Total spending and the pattern of spending were determined by using Turco and Navarro's (1993) measure of event spending activity. The participant was first asked to report the number of people who were non-players accompanying her to the event. The participant was also asked to estimate the dollar amount she and the accompanying persons spent in total during their stay in Key West in each of eight categories: (1) lodging, (2) transportation, (3) groceries, (4) equipment, (5) meals, (6) retail shopping and souvenirs, (7) alcoholic beverages, and (8) tour packages. Total spending for each participant was determined by summing spending in all eight categories and then dividing by the number of persons associated with the spending. Social spending was represented by the total proportion of each participant's spending at the event that was allocated to discretionary activities (i.e., dining out, drinking alcoholic beverages, retail shopping, and purchase of tour packages).

Data Analysis

Means and standard deviations were calculated for each spending category in order to identify the participants' overall spending profile during the event. AMOS was used to model the hypothesized relationships among the constructs. The fit of the measurement and structural model was tested simultaneously. Data analysis began with the test of the conceptual model specified in Figure 1. Items (i.e., indicators representing the latent factors) and relationships (paths specifying effects between constructs) were eliminated from the model based on associated t-values, overall improvement in the model fit, and conceptual integrity. Modification indices provided by AMOS were consulted for model changes. Changes to the model were made sequentially. Fit statistics were calculated after each change. The process iterated until a satisfactory fit to the data was obtained (Byrne, 2013). A detailed presentation of the analysis follows.

Results

Spending Profile

Participants reported an average of five nights' stay at West Key for the tournament. They spent an average of $1,394 in total (Table 1). The largest amount was spent on transportation ($774), followed by lodging ($229). On average, the participants spent $337 on social activities (i.e., eating out, drinking, shopping, and tours).

While the absolute amount spent rendered an estimate of how much each participant spent at the event, it obscured the proportional amount that each participant allocated to spending categories in relation to their total budget. For instance, a participant with an $800 budget who spent $250 on social spending (31%) would demonstrate a stronger propensity to allocate their spending for socializing than would a participant with a $1,600 budget who allocated $300 for social spending (19%). Therefore, for purposes of the analysis here, spending items were calculated as the proportion of total spending. Similar to spending in dollars, traveling to the event took the lion's share of the budget (46%), followed by lodging (19%). On average, social spending (i.e., eating out, drinking, shopping, and touring) accounted for 29% of the participants' total event budget.

Measurement and Structural Model

The conceptual model based on literature review hypothesized positive effects from football identity to social motivation (H1a), from football identity to sense of community (H1b), from social motivation to sense of community (H2), from social motivation to social spending (H3a), and from sense of community to social spending (H3b). Football identity was represented by two composite scores: the sum of the four Social ID items, and the sum of the four Self ID items. Social motivation was measured by the three SOC items. Sense of community was represented by the four COM items. The initial model rendered a poor fit to the data: [chi square](31) = 76.316, p < 0.001, CFI = .889, RMSEA = .082.

Modifications were first made to the measurement model. Two COM items were removed because of their low factor loadings: the standardized factor loading for COM1 (I am quite similar to most people attending the tournament) was .431, and .379 for COM2 (if I feel like talking, I can generally find someone at the tournament to talk to right away). The modified model (with all errors uncorrelated) substantially improved the fit to the data and produced an almost perfect representation of the data: [chi square] (16) = 7.942, p = .951, CFI = 1.000, RMSEA < .0001.

Nonetheless, two paths in the structural model were insignificant: the path from football identity to sense of community (H1b), and the path from social motivation to social spending (H3a) (.784 > p > .146). Thus, Hypothesis 1b and 3 a were rejected. The model was refit after removing one path at a time. The resulting model after removing the two paths (with all errors uncorrelated) produced a satisfactory fit to the data: [chi square](18) = 10.210, p = .925, CFI = 1.000, RMSEA < .0001. It was noted that the current model had a larger chi-square value compared to the previous model. However, this difference was not significant; [X.sub.d.sup.2](2) = 2.268, p = .322. Based on the parsimony principle that given two different models with similar explanatory power for the same data, the simpler model (the one with greater degrees of freedom) is to be preferred (Byrne, 2013), the current model is retained. All three remaining paths in the model are significant (p < .01) (Table 2). The model explains a small but measurable variance in social spending ([R.sup.2] = .053, p < .01), a considerable portion of variance in the sense of community at the event ([R.sup.2] = .322, p < .001), and a moderate proportion of the variance in social motivation ([R.sup.2] = .199, p < .001).

All factor loadings and standardized path coefficients are presented in Figure 2. Examination of Figure 2 shows that the factor loadings range from .55 to .81, attesting to the quality of the final measurement model. The final structural model reveals a simpler pathway of relationships than were hypothesized: A participant's football player identity predicts her social motivation to attend the tournament, her social motivation positively correlates to the sense of community at the event, and consequently the sense of community directly and positively affects the extent to which the participant allocates spending to discretionary social activities when attending the event. Thus, H1a, H2, and H3b are supported, but H1b and H3a are not.

Discussion

The relationships among the variables predicted were less complex than those hypothesized. Whereas football identity was expected to drive both social motivation for attending the event and sense of community while attending the event, only social motivation was directly influenced by one's identity as a football player. Sense of community was shown to be a direct effect of social motivation. Similarly, social spending was expected to be a function of both social motivation and sense of community. However, sense of community was the only variable to have a direct effect on social spending. The effect of social motivation on social spending was indirect, as it occurred through sense of community.

[FIGURE 2 OMITTED]

From a conceptual standpoint, this suggests that social motivation fosters the requisite conditions for participants to seek and find a sense of community, and that social motivation is cultivated by identity. This is consistent with ethnographic data from events (Green & Chalip, 1998; Kemp, 1999), and with work demonstrating that opportunities to socialize are pivotal for event marketing (Snelgrove & Wood, 2010; Veno & Veno, 1992). It suggests that marketing communications appealing to identity and displaying opportunities the event affords for socializing will be particularly attractive to potential participants.

The higher the sense of community players felt at the event, the more players allocated from their budgets to social spending. This makes intuitive sense insomuch as camaraderie at an event should foster social engagements with other attendees and consequent spending to initiate and sustain social interaction (Uhrich & Benkenstein, 2012; Uhrich & Koenigstorfer, 2009). Thus, the social quality of the experience and the spend that an event generates are interrelated, but it depends on the type of spend. Expensive registration, high cost hotels, and costly transportation may increase total spend, but not in the categories that matter most from a marketing standpoint. Indeed, these may require budgets to be reallocated in ways that undermine overall event satisfaction (Rong-Da Liang et al., 2013). In order to enable a socially rewarding experience for event attendees, event organizers need to create conditions that encourage socializing which can be supported by event participants' social spending.

It is not uncommon for events to incorporate ancillary official activities (mixers, dances, concerts, parades, workshops, etc.) as a means to enhance the quality of attendees' experience and to encourage longer stays and, thereby, more spend (Chalip, 2004). These may have value, but it has been demonstrated elsewhere that the quality of social experience at events depends particularly on a festive atmosphere that imparts a sense among participants that they are active celebrants (Green & Chalip, 1998; Veno & Veno, 1992). Sport events will benefit if festive celebrations are incorporated.

It is useful to note that the two hypotheses that were not confirmed do not negate the expectation that identity, social motivation, and sense of community constitute a system of variables that affect social spending. The effect of identity on sense of community is indirect, as it occurs solely through social motivation. Similarly, the effect of social motivation on social spending is also indirect, as it occurs solely through sense of community. The relationships are present, though not always direct. It would seem that identity is insufficient to enable a sense of community unless it provides a foundation for seeking social interaction. Seeking social interaction is insufficient to foster social spending unless the conditions enable a sense of community to form.

Limitations

Sport subcultures are neither singular nor isomorphic. This study examined the identity, social motivation, sense of community, and spending of female football players at a national tournament. The effects found here could be stronger or weaker for males, for athletes from different sports, and/or for athletes participating in a sport at different competitive levels.

Social class, ethnicity, and education level might also cause findings to vary. These were not studied here.

Self-reports are potentially fallible indicators of behavior or attitudes. Spending and budget allocations, as well as player attitudes, were measured using self-report. Although the measurements were standard and based on previously validated instruments, the precision of measurement is not clear.

Future Research

The limitations noted above have to do with the generalizability and boundary conditions on findings here. Future research should examine other contexts, other market segments, and non-self-report forms of measurement.

Although the importance of socializing in an atmosphere of festival has been discussed elsewhere in the events literature (e.g., Ehrenreich, 2007), the means to enable socializing via festival have not been elaborated for event organizers. If official event activities crowd out festival, then the event's attractiveness and its overall economic value may become compromised. Further work is needed to identify the means to build and sustain festivity, and to enable a productive interplay between social activities organized officially and those that coalesce informally.

The pathway of effects found here is consistent with work suggesting that a similar direction of effects can also reduce risk at an event (Veno & Veno, 1992). The utility of catering to subcultural identity, nurturing social motivation, and enabling a sense of community may therefore extend beyond merely encouraging event attendees to spend. It may be useful for future work to examine whether social spending and reduced likelihood of attendee misbehavior can be jointly promoted using the pathway demonstrated here.

Some events include workshops, clinics, exhibitions, or other opportunities for attendees to share their involvement in the sport and its subculture. These have been shown to be attractive to some attendees (Chalip & McGuirty, 2004; Kim & Chalip, 2010). They were not incorporated into the event studied here. Their utility as places for social interaction and as a means for attendees to find a sense of community should be considered in future studies.

The effect of sense of community on social spending was small (albeit statistically significant) in this study. There are undoubtedly other factors that drive attendees' decisions about how to allocate their spending. Expectations of peers and family, traditions of sport and team, activities and attractions available may be among those other factors. More work is needed to identify the bases for event attendees' choices when formulating their budgets and allocating spending for purposes of socializing.

Nevertheless, it is also likely that the effect of sense of community on social spending was underestimated here. Two of the original four items loaded poorly in the context of this model, and had to be dropped. If the social experiences that events afford depend on characteristics that distinguish events from other forms of human endeavor (viz., Chalip, 2006; Handelman, 1990), then it may be useful to develop a more event-specific measure of the sense of community obtained at events.

Over time, there may be a dialectical relationship among identity, social motivation, and sense of community such that each supports development of the other (Nowell & Boyd, 2010; Obst & White, 2005; Stryker & Serpe, 1982). The process clearly takes place over time, and well in advance of a short national tournament (Green & Chalip, 1998). Yet, if socializing at a tournament is important to participants, then the tournament may play a role in the overall process of building each. Future work should explore the contribution that sport events play in this process, and should identify implications for event marketing and management.

Conclusion

Spending at events is an important aspect of event marketing. Future studies of the ways that event attendees allocate their budgets, including the impact of event elements on attendee spending, will provide added insight into the experiences that varied events do (and do not) enable. It is particularly important that enabling (and perhaps even prompting) budget allocations to categories likely to be associated with positive social interactions have the potential to enhance the quality of attendees' overall experience. Delineating the interrelationships between event expenditures and the experience that event goers obtain can enhance our understanding of the ways that event design affects the efficacy of particular event marketing strategies.

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Xiaoyan Xing, PhD, is an associcate professor in the School of Sport Management and Communications at Capital University of Physical Education and Sports. Her research interests include the effects of culture and subculture on sport consumption.

Laurence Chalip, PhD, is a professor and chair of the Department of Recreation, Sport and Tourism at the University of J Illinois. His research focuses on sport policy.

B. Christine Green, PhD, is a professor in the Department of Recreation, Sport and Tourism at the University of Illinois. Her research focuses on the intersection of sport and development.

Table 1
Average Personal Spending in Each Category

Spending Item           Dollars     Proportion
                                  of total spend

Lodging                   229          .19
Transportation            774          .46
Equipment                 20           .02
Groceries                 31           .03
Eating out *              116          .10
Drinking *                70           .07
Shopping *                61           .06
Tour *                    90           .07
Total social spending     337          .29

* These are the categories of social spending

Table 2
Regression Coefficients and Variances in the Final
Model with t-values in Parenthesis

                     Social spending   Sense of     Social
                                       community   motivation
Sense of community      .036 **
                        (2.758)
Social motivation                      .583 ***
                                       (5.072)
Football identity                                   .164 ***
                                                    (4.497)

[R.sup.2]                 .053           .322        .199

Residual Variance      .029 ***        .847 ***     .945 ***
                       (10.169)        (3.720)      (4.885)

*** p [less than or equal to] .001,
** p [less than or equal to] .010, 2-tailed test.