As time goes by: deciphering the fantasy sport playing teenager.

Ruihley, Brody J. ; Billings, Andrew C. ; Rae, Coral 等

Introduction

To claim that fantasy sport play is a burgeoning industry would be to offer a considerable understatement. In the United States and Canada, the number of participants has doubled over a seven-year period, currently with 41 million people playing (Fantasy Sport Trade Association, 2014). Such an increase is particularly noteworthy because of its relationship to sports media consumption, as the typical fantasy sport participant consumes three times as much sports media content as a non-participating sports fan (ESPN Integrated Media Research, 2010). As Billings and Ruihley (2014) summarize: "a true sports media game changer has emerged. It is fantasy sport" (p. 1).

Given the rapid expansion of play and offerings within fantasy sport, scholars have attempted to explore the ramifications of this high level of participation, exploring issues such as gender differences amongst who plays (Davis & Duncan, 2006; Ruihley & Billings, 2013), racial demographics of the participants (Drayer & Dwyer, 2013), influence of money related to league entry fees and prizes (Mahan, Drayer, & Sparvero, 2012; Drayer, Dwyer, & Shapiro, 2013), and how such economics tie to the commodification of sport (Wenner, 2013). However, one demographic receiving relatively scant attention has been the youth who are increasingly participating in the activity. Investigating this demographic group is crucial to any burgeoning industry, as "the earlier the marketer establishes brand awareness and recognition in the child, the stronger the brand association and imagery are likely to be when they become independent as consumers, in order to develop a long-term profitable relationship in the future" (Ross & Harradine, 2004, p. 24). Moreover, children within the tween/teen demographic binary are also more likely to move from fickle to loyal regarding brand preferences and purchase intent (James, 2001). In sum, this demographic represents the moments in which one is most likely to become hard-wired to particular brands, behaviors, and media associations. Thus, within the realm of fantasy sport, teens are actively deciding whether playing these types of games will be part and parcel of who they are--and, perhaps most critically, who they hope to be. While no study has determined the specific size of this group of fantasy players, a study from Ipsos (2010) focused on adult players, finding that people within the 18-year old demographic had played fantasy sport an average of three years. This means that most of the six million fantasy sport participants within the 18-24 age demographic opted to begin participation before graduating high school.

With an increasing number of children participating--often at the urging of a parent (Ruihley & Hardin, 2011)--a warrant for further investigation is proffered.

Brown, Ruihley, and Billings (2013) examine how age plays a factor in the reasons for participating in fantasy sport, uncovering a series of differences jointly showing that motivations for fantasy sport participation are significantly different at various life stages. Nevertheless, the study only examined different ages of adults--a common theme amongst fantasy sport surveys. With many children playing fantasy sport in middle school (and sometimes even younger), such a distinction is important to discern. Moreover, these participants are just beginning fantasy sport participation, raising the question of whether the decision to start fantasy sport play is demonstrably different from the decision to continue participating in fantasy sport. This study fills that scholarly void, surveying 1,182 adults of fantasy sport participants 20 years of age or older and comparing those responses to survey responses of 178 fantasy sport participants between 12 and 19 years of age. Collectively, the question raised pertains to whether youth fantasy sport participation is significantly different than adult fantasy sport participation.

Related Literature

Deciphering the Fantasy Sport Fan Without question, fantasy sport play has changed the manner in which people consume sport and perform elements of fandom (see Roy & Goss, 2007; Spinda & Haridakis, 2008). Schirato (2012) notes that the interactivity within fantasy sport turns "the viewer as consumer into part of the text that is being consumed" (p. 79). He continues to argue that "fantasy sport never rests" (p. 82), as the biggest reason appears to be the amount of time required to gain knowledge to succeed. While previous reports find the fantasy sport player consuming considerably more media than the non-fantasy sport participant (Billings & Ruihley, 2013), it may not be the case that fantasy causes increased media consumption as much as people opt to play fantasy sport because of their higher level of sport avidity. Wann, Grieve, Partridge, Zapalac, and Parker (2013) underscore this potential trend, stating that "involvement with fantasy sports was not a significant predictor of percentage of time spent viewing any of the various forms of television sport programming" (p. 190).

Nonetheless, fandom shifts within fantasy sport play as "fantasy consumers experience notably stronger identification with professional players than they do with entire sports teams" (Ballouli, Hutchinson, Cattani, & Reese, 2013, p. 226). Lee, Ruihley, Brown, and Billings (2013) found that when presented with a win from either their favorite NFL team or their fantasy team, 41.6% prefer the fantasy victory. Such a finding is generally echoed by Dwyer (2013) when it is argued that, "if one's fantasy team is not successful, media consumption will decrease significantly. Favorite NFL team outcomes, however, had little impact in league-wide media consumption" (p. 46). The result is what Schirato (2012) references as "antithetical ways of seeing" (p. 82), with Dwyer (2013) arguing, "it may be prudent to take extra measures to ensure fantasy participants remain competitive as long as possible during the NFL season" (p. 44).

Thus, fantasy sport becomes another example of "games within games" (Billings & Ruihley, 2014, p. ix) as "both sports betting and participation in fantasy sports appear to serve as 'complementary investments' by sport consumers" (Mahan, Drayer, & Sparvero, 2012, p. 167). Such trends should not be viewed as offering a zero-sum game regarding sports fandom, as scholars have found this could be a case where the rising tide of fantasy sport indeed lifts all boats. Mahan, Drayer, and Sparvero (2012) found that fantasy sport play results in higher identification with a favorite team, and Billings and Ruihley (2014) concurred, labeling the rise as the "Sports Fan 2.0" (p. 37). The dimensions of skill vs. luck have been examined with a focus on the economics incorporated with league entry fees, finding little relationship between the two. Still, in a survey of 30 male participants, Ballouli, Hutchison, Cattani, and Reese (2013) discovered that "although participant responses did not suggest many of the negative connotations associated with traditional forms of gambling, the economic motivation to play fantasy football is similar to the motivation bettors have for gambling on real sports" (p. 224).

Consequently, scholars have learned that demographics play a larger role in determining who the fantasy sport participant is likely to be as the activity skews very heavily toward both males (with male bonding, control, and competition being central to the activity, see Davis & Duncan, 2006) and Caucasians (see Drayer & Dwyer, 2013). Billings and Ruihley (2014) note a "queasy undercurrent particular to Black/African-American participation in fantasy sport because of the requirement that players (a majority of whom are Black) are 'owned' by fantasy sport participants (a majority of whom are White)" (p. 48), again illuminating how different demographic groups are responding in to fantasy sport activity in demonstrably different manners.

Teens, Brands, and Marketing Trends

The impact of sport within teens is well documented, as youth frequently list athletes as primary heroes and role models in similar regard as their parents (Stevens, Lathrop, & Bradish, 2003). As sport avidity grows during this teen period (Enoch, 2010), so does awareness of differing information sources (Roedder-John, 1999) and brands (Chaplin & Roedder-John, 2005). Thus, establishing positive associations with children is crucial for industries like fantasy sport, because "children do form preferences for sports teams early in life and in early stages of cognitive development" (James, 2001, p. 248) and are likely to stay loyal to these products, teams, and media offerings later in life. Thus, middle to late childhood becomes an optimal age in which to gain a "greater understanding of the symbolic meanings and status accorded to certain types of products and brand names" (Roedder-John, 1999, p. 193).

Given the established positive relationship between age and brand recognition (Ross & Harradine, 2004), such ties to the advancement of sports products are inherently critical for marketers. James (2001) notes that "socialization into leisure is a continuous pattern of change beginning with the earliest interactions of childhood, continuing through the pivotal periods of adolescence and young adulthood and on through maturity" (p. 235). From a fantasy sport perspective, if youth are socialized into participation at a young age, at a minimum, they will at least be socialized into the game, with the broader potential for websites and other products to be branded in the minds of youth at impressionable ages. Consumption of not just media but all ancillary products is funneled through this prism of teen understanding as, by age 12, children are "more vigilant about the social implications of owning certain brands," (Chaplin & Roedder-John, 2005, p. 121).

Fantasy Sport by Age Demographics

Fantasy sport offers the potential scenario where one opts to "root, root, root for no team" (Sandomir, 2002, para. 1), which can be quite different for younger sports fans contemplating fantasy sport participation, as their allegiances to professional sports teams are not as established as older demographics in their early teens, but are much more established by the end of this teenage time period (see James, 2001). Maguire, Armfield, and Boone (2012) emphasize that, "no affiliation with the fantasy team existed before the individual's creation of the team. Whereas fanship of real football teams can be a lifetime affair, the fantasy sports owner will build up and tear down rosters one year from the next" (p. 287). Such trends are very pertinent to understanding the newer players within fantasy sport participation, who are now starting the activity even before they are old enough to legally possess a Facebook or Twitter account.

Ruihley and Hardin (2011) find that enhancing family bonds results in children who are more likely to participate in fantasy leagues, as they afford an opportunity to bond fathers and sons in a common goal and language. Claiming that individuals are significantly more likely to have attended a baseball game in person if they have played fantasy baseball, Nesbit and King-Adzima (2012) believe that "fantasy baseball may have played a role in attracting and maintaining fans, particularly young fans, to the sport over the past decade" (p. 496). Edelman (2012) claims the Internet boom of the 1990s shifted demographics decidedly wider because of the easier ways to access and compile statistics, also questioning whether allowing children to play in leagues that charge entry fees amounts to a circumvention of underage gambling laws.

Very little is known about the role age plays in motivations to play fantasy sport. Brown, Billings, Ruihley (2012) bifurcated their study of 529 fantasy sport participants into two age groups: younger than 35 years and 35 years and older. The study showed younger participants consuming 4.2 more hours of weekly sports media content than the older group. In addition, younger participants were more likely to play for reasons related to entertainment and enjoyment, while older participants were more likely to use the activity to pass time. Still, the study limited the younger age demographic to 18 years of age and older, meaning that those younger than 18 remain an understudied demographic group.

Motivations for Participation

One well-developed area in fantasy sport literature involves the extrapolation of various reasons why people participate in the activity. In one of the earliest studies in this area, Farquhar and Meeds (2007) used Q-methodology to reveal five types of fantasy sport users (or FSUs) including (a) casual participants, (b) players, (c) isolationist thrill-seekers, (d) trash-talkers, and (e) formatives. They also uncovered two macro-level motivations for play: arousal (i.e., positive stress or eustress) and surveillance (i.e., the gathering of sport information utilizing the sport media landscape). These motivations were expanded and developed by other scholars, with Hur, Ko, and Valacich (2007) including escapism as the perceived need to deviate from the "daily routine" (p. 530). Seo and Green (2008) measured online sport consumption in general, noting that escape seems to always play a central role. Roy and Goss (2007) wrote of the "need to achieve success and outperform" (p. 101) within fantasy sport, leading to increased time and financial investments.

Spinda and Haridakis (2008) advanced the dialogue in articulating six main motives for fantasy football participation: ownership, achievement/self-esteem, escape/pass time, socialization, bragging rights, and amusement. Ruihley and Hardin (2011) utilized prior work and expanded to offer additional motivational areas of social sport, camaraderie, and competition. Lee, Seo, and Green (2013) ultimately created a Fantasy Sport Motivation Inventory (FanSMI) offering 12 dimensions for examination, which included some motivations used previously (such as entertainment and escape) while providing some relatively new parts of the fantasy sport equation (such as hedonic experience and substitute for a losing team). Billings and Ruihley (2014) compiled a series of composite scales for assessing motivations, within 10 dimensions: arousal, camaraderie, competition, control/ownership, escape, fanship, pass time, self-esteem, social sport, and surveillance.

Research Questions

In all, the various dimensions of motivations for fantasy play have begun to have many points of contact within different iterations of studies, yet the potential demographic differences within these motivations warrants additional scholarly attention because of the financial impact of garnering this youth market for advertisers and fantasy sport providers. Moreover, the investigation of these age-oriented trends offer potential ramifications beyond the world of fantasy sport, underscoring how teens may respond differently to different appeals and brands.

This study focuses upon those just beginning their fantasy sport experience, providing the first comprehensive examination of the teenaged demographic in comparison to other age demographics (in this case, 20s, 30s, and 40s and older). Specifically, the following research questions will be used to guide the study:

RQ1: Are motivations for fantasy sport play significantly different for teenagers (12-19 years of age) than their older counterparts?

RQ2a: What people are most responsible for influencing minor-aged teenagers (aged 12-17 years of age) to start fantasy sport participation?

RQ2b: What people are most responsible for influencing minor-aged teenagers (aged 12-17 years of age) to continue fantasy sport participation?

RQ3: Will sports media consumption and fantasy sport media consumption be different for teenagers (12-19 years of age) than their older counterparts?

RQ4: Will reports of enjoyment and overall satisfaction with fantasy sport be different for teenagers (12-19 years of age) than their older counterparts?

RQ5: Will reports for future intent to play fantasy sport be different for teenagers (12-19 years of age) than their older counterparts?

Methods

To learn more about fantasy sport consumption similarities and differences among different age groups, a quantitative survey was developed addressing consumption and motivational areas. A detailed review of the sample and recruitment, instrument, procedure, and analyses are included in the following section.

Sample and Recruitment

Two main groups were targeted for this research. The first group was adult fantasy sport consumers (defined as anyone who has played a fantasy sport in the past 12 months). Upon an expedited IRB process, this group was recruited utilizing social media outlets (i.e., Facebook and Twitter), personal communication, and use of fantasy sport industry contacts reaching out to fans and followers. Since the first survey collection only addressed adults 18 years of age and older, the second group targeted a more difficult group to obtain responses: 12 to 17 year olds. Because this targeted group is identified as a vulnerable population (indicated by their minor status), more specific steps were taken in recruiting. After completing a full review with IRB, participants were similarly recruited as the adults through utilizing social media outlets, personal communication, college student referral, and use of industry contacts. The difference was that the youth recruitment primarily targeted people who knew of youth players. For instance, this research sent targeted messages to the father, brother/sister, aunt, or grandpa that knows of a youth family member participating in fantasy sport. In this research, recruitment messages were crafted to ask if you are a fantasy sport user aged 12-17 or do you know of a fantasy sport user aged 12-17. It is possible, through the industry contacts, that a direct participant was reached, but it is more likely that the youth participant was referred to the survey by a third party source.

When the adults and youth decided to participate, they followed a hyperlink (included in all recruitment material) connecting them to the online survey. The beginning of the online questionnaire differed for the two groups. Adult participants simply read and agreed to the informed consent and then were directed to the instrument. Youth participants read and agreed to the informed consent, but were then directed to a Passive Parent Permission form. With this, youth participants were directed to have their parent or guardian read the consent form. This form was designed similarly to the participant informed consent, but rewritten to discuss the child taking the survey. Parents and guardians were given all contact information of the primary researcher and informed that their child did not have to partake in the study. If they agreed to allow their child to participate, the participant clicked an approval button on the screen and was directed to the instrument.

Instrument

The instrument for this research was developed in the form of an online questionnaire. Qualtrics was used to create, host, and store the data for this research. Two different survey instruments were used for this research. Each instrument measured the same concepts with one difference being that the second survey, for youth participants, had slightly adjusted wording to reduce any comprehension issues for a younger reader (e.g., feeling of ownership vs. feeling of having players on my team personal sense of achievement vs. feel like I did a good job; and stimulation vs. excitement). In addition, some demographic questions (e.g., marital status, education level, and household income) were withheld from the youth survey. Participants were asked to identify demographic information and general sport-related questions including areas of: sport consumption behavior (i.e., Amount of hours per week consuming sport-related content--consuming sport on TV, radio, sport websites, magazines, newspapers, etc.) and fanship (Seo & Green, 2008). In addition to the general sport-related questions, participants were asked to respond to questions about their fantasy sport experience. Questions included topics of fantasy consumption (i.e., Amount of hours per week devoted to fantasy sport related activities), fantasy sports participated in, favorite fantasy sport, fees (or lack thereof) associated with league participation, and whether prize funds were involved in participation.

Beyond the difference of simple language for the adult and youth surveys, the same motivational factors were measured for each type of consumption. Participants were asked to identify their level of agreement or disagreement to statements on a seven-point Likert scale anchored by 1 = Strongly Disagree and 7 = Strongly Agree. Utilized in the fantasy sport context in several studies (Billings & Ruihley, 2013, 2014; Ruihley & Hardin, 2011), the following variables measured the motivational aspects of fantasy sport consumption. For a complete list of scale items used, please consult Table 1.

* Arousal (Wann, 1995) was measured using three scale items ([alpha] =.866).

* Escape (Seo & Green, 2008) was measured using three scale items ([alpha] =.822).

* Ownership (Ruihley & Hardin, 2011; Spinda & Haridakis, 2008) was measured using four scale items ([alpha] =.831).

* Achievement/Self-Esteem (Spinda & Haridakis, 2008) was measured using three scale items ([alpha] =.862).

* Surveillance (Hur, Ko, & Valacich, 2007; Seo & Green, 2008; Ruihley & Hardin, 2011) was measured using three scale items ([alpha] =.862).

* Camaraderie (Seo & Green, 2008; Ruihley & Hardin, 2011) was measured using three scale items ([alpha] =.798).

* Social Sport (Hur, Ko, & Valacich, 2007) was measured using three scale items ([alpha] =.844).

* Pass Time (Seo & Green, 2008) was measured using three scale items ([alpha] =.804).

* Competition (Ruihley & Hardin, 2011) was measured using three scale items ([alpha] =.761).

Correlation and reliability were tested on all the motivating factors. The first step included a test for unidimensionality in testing the correlation coefficient. Any items not correlating above 0.30 were dropped from the analysis. The second step tested for reliability utilizing Cronbach's alpha coefficient to determine the reliability of the scale items of a projected factor. If the alpha level dropped below 0.70, unreliable items were dropped from the analysis (De Vaus, 2002).

Analyses

SPSS Statistics software (22.0) was used to analyze this data. Correlation and reliability tests were conducted to determine relation and fit of scale items. Descriptive statistics, frequencies, and crosstabs were used to compile and address demographic information. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was administered to examine the differences between the age groups. The ages were grouped and tested based on the research questions. Bonferonni's correction was present for the appropriate analyses. In addition, a Bonferonni post-hoc test was administered.

Results

Profile of Sample

The sample consisted of 1,360 fantasy sport users. The average age was 29.8 and ranged from 12 to 69 years. Consistent with industry standards (Fantasy Sport Trade Association, 2014), the sample was predominantly male (93.6%) and Caucasian (88.5%). The decade-oriented breakdown produced four groups: 12 to 19 years of age (n = 178), 20-29 years of age (n = 559), 30 to 39 years of age (n = 431), and 40 years of age and older (n = 192). People from Canada and 47 of 50 US states participated. Utilizing a three-item measure for fanship (Seo & Green, 2008), the teenage demographic mean ranked significantly lower ([mu] = 6.0, p = .000.015) than the 20-29 group ([mu] = 6.7), 30-39 group (= 6.6), and 40 and older group (= 6.3). Focusing on the 12-19 year old demographic group, the top two favored fantasy sports to participate in were football (60.1% of demographic) and college sport (16.3%). All other group breakdowns favored football first and baseball second. For complete list of favorite fantasy sport for all demographic groups, please see Table 2.

Research Question 1

The first research question queried whether any significant differences emerged when comparing motivational means of older groups with the teenage demographic. Table 3 reports means and significant differences between each of the four age groups. Thus, research question 1 is answered in a number of manners, as the motivation factors providing a significant difference with the teenage demographic were:

* Ownership (F(3, 1356) = 7.25, p = .000): 12-19 group ([mu] = 5.0) significantly higher than the 20-29 ([mu] = 4.3) and 30-39 group ([mu] = 4.4).

* Achievement/Self-Esteem (F(3, 1356) = 13.26, p = .000): 12-19 group ([mu] = 5.6) significantly lower than the 20-29 group ([mu] = 6.1), 30-39 group (p = 6.1), and 40 and older group ([mu] = 5.9).

* Camaraderie (F(3, 1356) = 21.9, p = .000): 12-19 group ([mu] = 5.0) significantly lower than the 2029 group ([mu] = 5.7) and 30-39 group ([mu] = 5.7).

* Social Sport (F(3, 1356) = 25.45, p = .000): 1219 group ([mu] = 5.5) significantly lower than the 20-29 group ([mu] = 6.0).

* Pass Time (F(3, 1356) = 6.65, p = .000): 12-19 group ([mu] = 5.3) significantly higher than the 40 and older group ([mu] = 4.7).

Research Questions 2a & 2b

Research question 2a asked what group of people are most responsible for assisting the participant in starting participation in fantasy sport. One major demarcation point within anyone's American's life involves turning 18, where graduation from high school is coupled with enhanced privileges and freedoms. Given that most fantasy participants begin participating in fantasy sport before this milestone, research questions 2a and 2b dealt with trigger influences leading to fantasy activities. These results are aggregated in Table 4.

Participants were asked to check all applicable groups when thinking about who was most influential in starting fantasy sport. Results indicate that the most influential group to fantasy sport minors (n = 153) is friends (78.4% of sample indicated this group), followed by siblings (32%), parents (28.1%), media members (7.8%), teachers (3.3%), and coworkers (0.7%).

Research question 2b asked what group of people are most responsible for assisting the participant in continuing participation in fantasy sport. Participants were asked to check all the groups that apply concerning which group was most influential in continuing participation in fantasy sport. Results indicate the following groups as most influential: friends (85.0% of sample indicated this group), followed by siblings (21.6%), parents (21.6%), media members (3.3%), teachers (1.3%), and coworkers (0.7%). Thus, for both RQ2a and RQ2b, friends appear to be a driving factor in both starting and continuing within the activity as they appear to influence participation more than all other measured influencers combined.

Research Question 3

The third research question concerned whether any media or fantasy sport consumption results in significant differences between the teenage demographic and their older fantasy sport peers. Combined results are reported in Table 5.

Participants were asked to indicate how many hours per week they spend consuming sport-related mass media content and also how many hours they spend devoted to fantasy sport activities. Concerning general sport consumption (F(3, 1318) = 14.35, p = .000), significant results indicate that the 12-19 group ([mu] = 11.5 hours per week; p = .000) was the demographic group with the fewest hours per week when compared to the 20-29 group ([mu] = 18.6 hours), 30-39 group ([mu] = 17.2 hours), and 40 and older group ([mu] = 17.3 hours). Examining fantasy sport consumption (F(3, 1325) = 14.23, p = .000), similar significant results show the 12-19 group ([mu] = 5.6 hours per week; p = .000) with the fewest hours per week when compared to the 20-29 group ([mu] = 8.0 hours), 30-39 group ([mu] = 8.5 hours), and 40 and older group ([mu] = 11.2 hours).

Research Questions 4 & 5

Research question 4 posited whether reports of enjoyment and overall satisfaction with fantasy sport are different for teenagers than their older counterparts. Utilizing a three-item measure for enjoyment (Ruihley & Hardin, 2011) (F(3, 1356) = 67.43, p = .000), the teenage demographic mean ranked significantly lower ([mu] = 5.7, p = .000) compared to the 20-29 group ([mu] = 6.6), 30-39 group ([mu] = 6.5), and 40 and older group ([mu] = 6.4). Similarly, when examining overall satisfaction with fantasy sport (F(3, 1356) = 120.89, p = .000), the teenage demographic mean ranked significantly lower ([mu] = 5.6, p = .000) compared to the 20-29 group ([mu] = 6.7), 30-39 group ([mu] = 6.7), and 40 and older group ([mu] = 6.5).

Research question 5 sought to determine if reports for future intent to play fantasy sport were different for teenagers than their older counterparts. Regarding intent to continue participation in fantasy sport (F(3, 1356) = 206.48, p = .000), the teenage demographic mean ranked significantly lower ([mu] = 5.6, p = .000) compared to the 20-29 group ([mu] = 6.9), 30-39 group ([mu] = 6.9), and 40 and older group ([mu] = 6.8).

Discussion

Concerning the overarching question as to whether teenagers are experiencing fantasy sport in demonstrably different manners than other age demographics, the results imply an emphatic yes. Insights can be gleaned from each of the research questions. First, pertaining to the motivations for participation, rather than offering sweeping conclusions about the teenage demographic, a specific profile emerges. Teen participants reported significantly higher motivational means for play in regard to both ownership (compared to the 20s and 30s) and passing time (compared to the 40s). Both of these elevated responses could be explained by overall life trends. Teens likely enjoy the ownership incorporated into fantasy activity largely because they own much less in this point in their lives when compared to their adult counterparts as they largely rely on parents for other things to call their own. Even their sport-related fandom is tinged by others, as most children select a favorite sports team or player based on who their parent already prefers. Thus, fantasy sport participation seemingly provides a sense of ownership that is largely lacking in other aspects of their lives. The second area in which teens were significantly higher than one demographic group (in this case, the oldest group of 40-year olds and beyond) was in the area of passing time. Again, the typical life of a teen could potentially explain such a difference, as school hours are typically shorter than occupational hours (particularly when combined with parenting hours) involved for the oldest demographic.

There were also three areas in which teens were lower than other demographic groups, all of which were areas of interpersonal interaction, including self-esteem, camaraderie, and social aspects. When taken collectively, one attains a vision of teen participants that do not rely on fantasy sport to form and maintain personal bonds. Billings and Ruihley (2014) noted a major factor in continuing fantasy sport leagues for decades was keeping up with friends from previous parts of their lives (high school or college friends). Teens have not yet had circumstances to break away from such interactions, meaning that fantasy sport is not likely to function as a form of fusion to past portions of teens' lives. After all, there is no need to have a fantasy league to keep secondary school friends together if these are the same people teens already see on a daily basis.

Turning to results from the two-pronged RQ2, the largest influence on fantasy sport participation for 1217 year olds was, by far, other friends. Despite previous scholarship indicating that "family members, particularly a child's father, exerted a greater influence on a child's attachment to a favorite team than did friends" (James, 2001, p. 254), the same seemingly did not hold true within the realm of fantasy sport. The implications of this potential shift regarding the socialized fantasy sport product could be quite vast, warranting further investigation as to whether influencers for fantasy sport are truly as divergent as they seem when compared to traditional sport fandom. As much as stories percolate regarding sons and daughters starting play because their parents introduced the activity to them, this young demographic was nearly three times more likely to be the reason for a teen to start playing and four times more likely to be a reason why they continue their participation than any other singular factor, making it the overwhelming driving force in formative decisions to participate. Such a trend likely is the result of the need for clusters of people to form leagues, reversing established trends regarding the immediate family being a major influencer on youth sports tastes (Ross & Harradine, 2004). Already-established social bonds aid teens in starting a league together, while these same established bonds cause an insular effect among parenting demographics; parents may introduce the activity to their children, but the parent likely is already in an established league with a regular and familiar roster of friends already occupying league slots, making joining a group a daunting prospect for any teen.

The media consumption-oriented Research question 3 was answered in that sport media consumption was significantly lower for this age demographic than any other. Such a finding mirrors reports from Enoch (2010) for the ESPN Integrated Media Research team, where they found that media consumption was lowest among the 12-17 demographic. Given that Enoch (2010) reports that teens are more likely to watch studio shows (SportsCenter, Pardon the Interruption) than live sporting events, teens appear to prefer amalgamated sports offerings that combine many results in a short time span. Such a preference likely influences the way they consume fantasy sport, as they are less likely to watch fantasy-oriented sporting events unfold in real time. Enoch (2010) notes that teens regard sports as "social currency" (p. 34); 50% report being an "avid" sports fan (the highest among any age demographic) while still spending considerably less time consuming media as part of this avidity.

Finally, research questions 4 and 5 pertained to other factors influencing the fantasy sport experience of teens--a collection of measures collectively conveying the degree of happiness they have felt within their largely newfound fantasy sport participation. Overall, these measures were more negative when compared to every other demographic group. Teens reported having significantly lower enjoyment and satisfaction with the activity, which then resulted in significantly lower intent to play in the future. The fantasy sport industry optimist could point to the fickle nature of this youth demographic, a group that is building ties to brands and activities but not yet tied to them as they explore who they are and how they define themselves. This optimist could also note that all other demographics report near-perfect scores regarding intent to participate in the future, making the 5.6 (on a seven-point scale) seem much lower than it actually is as the majority are indicating they intend to continue their involvement with the activity. However, if Fantasy Sport Trade Association studies show that 80% of all adult participants have no inclination to stop playing in the next ten years and that 40% believe they will "play until they die" (Billings & Ruihley, 2014, p. 74), such lower scores could be a harbinger for the industry, signaling a youth demographic that will not be nearly as easy to maintain. James (2001) notes that child attachments to teams are often not challenged, which could be useful in understanding tensions caused by fantasy play, as team loyalty is continually challenged as one forms one's own teams and continually drafts and trades players with little regard to loyalty.

Managerial Implications

There are two, potentially, conflicting lenses for interpreting this data. One reading resides within the lens of understanding that teenagers are just in a different phase of life. Many are dependent on others (i.e., friends, teachers, parents, or guardians), non-committal, without a large amount of disposable income, and involved in many aspects of life for the first time. This interpretation does not invoke an over-reaction from a managerial perspective when confronted with significant differences in motivations, media and fantasy consumption, overall satisfaction and intent to return to the activity when compared to older counterparts. Rather, these managers may be interested in differences between the poles of this group: 12-year olds with little brand loyalty or hard-wired traits as compared to 17-year olds with much more finely honed senses of brand, loyalty, and tastes, not to mention increased autonomy over their own life behaviors.

A second reading views this data as a potential harbinger of industry difficulty to come. Since this is the first examination of the 12-17 age demographic, there is no precedent on how this group transforms from minor-aged to adult consumers. As such, it may be the case that results are typical of results of teen findings of now-older cohorts that report fantasy sport loyalty at considerably higher levels. However, if the results are instead atypical, the steady growth of an entire industry could be threatened. With results indicating the teenage demographic as significantly different in several ways from even their closest counterparts (20-29), a manager could have reason for concern, as the teenage demographic is the entry group in the consumer life cycle. If this consumer group is not as satisfied with the product or activity, it would be wise to assume that a cohort effect is in place. Industry professionals must analyze and carefully monitor this generation as they age into the (seemingly) perfect fantasy industry demographic profiles of 20-29 years, 30-39 years, and 40 years of age and above.

Limitations and Future Research

The limitations are of this research are two-fold. First, in a perfect situation, each age demographic within the sample would be approximately the same size. Part of the reason for imbalance was the difficulty in obtaining responses from the 12-17 year old participants, as they proved more likely to terminate the survey before completion in addition to the aforementioned difficulties regarding recruitment. A second limitation was the online survey component of the instrument. With this type of entry, it is impossible to locate participants for clarification of the results.

Because of the potential for a cohort effect, a similar study five years after the initial one could allow scholars to differentiate between whether this teen demographic was truly less loyal to fantasy play, or whether lower responses were more indicative of broad trends of this age demographic in general. Additionally, supplemental interviews and/or focus groups clearly would provide more insights into both the similarities and differences of teen fantasy sport participation when compared to other age groups; just such methods are not feasible in online survey form. Such ancillary methods represent robust opportunities for future investigation. Conducting focus groups could lead to very interesting discussion on the topic of fantasy sport while qualitative interviews and/or focus groups specifically within only the youth demographic would allow much more time to examine fantasy sport in their lives, likely resulting in more depth surrounding their activities.

Conclusion

There is no single holistic takeaway from this study of the youth fantasy sport participant when compared to other age groups. There are aspects of the activity that appear to fit their interests quite nicely (ownership and passing time) while other aspects exist that are less compatible to what is already known about how teens enact their sport fandom. Given that half of all teens are avid sports fans yet consume comparatively less sports media, the activity seemingly is less about consuming sport than it is about socializing through it. If the burgeoning fantasy sport industry finds ways to increase the social aspects of the activity, the youth demographic may become much more of a hardwired, committed, participant in the coming years.

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Coral Rae is a doctoral candidate in communication at the University of Alabama. Her research interests include examining public perceptions of sport deviance and athlete transgressions.

Table 1
Motivation and Scale Items

Motivation

Arousal
      Because I get pumped up when I am watching my team
      I like the stimulation I get from participating in
        fantasy sport
      I enjoy being emotionally aroused by the competition
Camaraderie
      It allows me to get along with others
      I enjoy the camaraderie of other participants
      It helps me stay in touch with people
Competition
      I enjoy winning
      Winning the league price (recognition, trophy, money,
        etc.) is important to me
      Being better than my opponent is important
      I enjoy competing against other team owners/managers
Control & Ownership
      I feel like a general a manger of an actual sports team
      I feel like a coach of a team
      Its like having a team in my control
      I enjoy controlling the lineup
      I enjoy drafting my own players
      I love the feeling of ownership
Escape
      I can escape from reality
      I can forget about work
      It allows me to escape from my daily routine
Fanship
      I consider myself a fan of sport
      I am a huge fan of sport in general
      I am a big fan of my favorite team
Pass Time
      It gives me something to do to occupy my time
      It passes the time away, particularly when I'm bored
      It is something to do in my free time
Self-Esteem
      I feel a personal sense of achievement when my
        fantasy team does well
      I feel like I have won when my fantasy team wins
      Winning at fantasy sport improves my self-esteem
Social Sport
      I like to chat with people about sports
      I like to share my opinions about sport teams and players
      I enjoy debating sport-related issues
Surveillance
      It provides me with quick and easy access to large
        volumes of sport information
      I am able to obtain a wide range of sport information
      I can learn about things happening in the sport world
      It provides me with more information about real
        players and teams
      The fantasy sport related information obtained from
        my participation is useful
      I feel more up-to-date with sport information
      It provides me with an increased awareness of the
        athletes and teams

Author

Arousal
      Wann, 1995
      Wann, 1995
      Wann, 1995
Camaraderie
      Seo & Green, 2008
      Spinda & Haridakis, 2008
      Ruihley & Hardin, 2011a
Competition
      Ruihley & Hardin, 2011a
      Ruihley & Hardin, 2011a
      Ruihley & Hardin, 2011a
      Ruihley & Hardin, 2011a
Control & Ownership
      Spinda & Haridakis, 2008
      Spinda & Haridakis, 2008
      Spinda & Haridakis, 2008
      Spinda & Haridakis, 2008
      Ruihley & Hardin, 2011a
      Spinda & Haridakis, 2008
Escape
      Seo & Green, 2008
      Seo & Green, 2008
      Hur, Ko, & Valacich, 2007
Fanship
      Seo & Green, 2008
      Seo & Green, 2008
      Seo & Green, 2008
Pass Time
      Seo & Green, 2008
      Seo & Green, 2008
      Seo & Green, 2008
Self-Esteem
      Spinda & Haridakis, 2008
      Spinda & Haridakis, 2008
      Spinda & Haridakis, 2008
Social Sport
      Hur, Ko, & Valacich, 2007
      Hur, Ko, & Valacich, 2007
      Hur, Ko, & Valacich, 2007
Surveillance
      Seo & Green, 2008
      Seo & Green, 2008
      Hur, Ko, & Valacich, 2007
      Ruihley & Hardin, 2011a
      Hur, Ko, & Valacich, 2007
      Ruihley & Hardin, 2011
      Ruihley & Hardin, 2011

Table 2
Favorite Fantasy Sport Percentages for Age Breakdowns

                    12-19     20-29     30-39    40 & Older
Motive / Group     (n=178)   (n=559)   (n=431)    (n=192)

Football            60.1%     70.0%     72.0%      62.0%
College             16.3%     0.7%      0.2%        0.5%
Baseball            7.8%      19.0%     17.4%      25.0%
Basketball          6.7%      3.5%      3.5%        1.0%
Hockey              2.2%      2.0%      6.5%        10.9
Golf                0.5%      0.1%      0.2%        0.0%
Auto                0.5%      0.0%      0.2%        0.5%

Note: Top two for each group bolded and italicized

Table 3
Motivation Means and Significant Difference With 12-19 Age Group

Motive / Group               12-19       20-29     30-39

Ownership                   5.0 (a)     4.3 (b)   4.4 (b)
Achievement/Self Esteem     5.6 (a)     6.1 (b)   6.1 (b)
Surveillance                  5.4         5.6       5.4
Camaraderie                 5.0 (a)     5.7 (b)   5.7 (b)
Escape                        4.4         3.9       4.1
Social Sport                5.5 (a)     6.0 (b)     5.8
Pass Time                   5.3 (a)       5.1       5.0
Competition                   5.5         5.7       5.7
Arousal                       5.4         5.6       5.6

Motive / Group             40 & Older    Total

Ownership                     4.5         4.5
Achievement/Self Esteem     5.9 (b)       6.0
Surveillance                  5.2         5.4
Camaraderie                   5.3         5.6
Escape                        4.1         4.1
Social Sport                  5.3         5.8
Pass Time                   4.7 (b)       5.0
Competition                   5.7         5.7
Arousal                       5.4         5.6

Note: Only examining differences with 12-19 age group where
(a) is significantly different from (b) accounting for
Bonferroni's correction (p<.006).

Table 4
Top Influencing Groups for Fantasy Sport Minors (12-17 Years Old)

Influencer        Percentage of   Percentage of   +/- Percentage
                  Participating   Participating       Change
                   --Starting     --Continuing

Friends               78.4%           85.0%           +6.6%
Siblings              32.0%           21.6%           -10.4%
Parents               28.1%           21.6%           -6.5%
Media Members         7.8%            3.3%            -5.5%
Teachers              3.3%            1.3%            -2.0%
Coworkers             0.7%            0.7%             0.0%

Table 5
General Sport and Fantasy Sport Weekly Consumption

                    General Sport        Fantasy Sport
Demographic Group   Consumption          Consumption

12-19 Years Old     11.5 (SD=5.5) (a)    5.6 (SD=5.5) (c)
20-29 Years Old     18.6 (SD=13.4) (b)   8.0 (SD=7.6) (d)
30-39 Years Old     17.2 (SD=12.6) (b)   8.5 (SD=7.8) (d)
40 Years & Older    17.3 (SD=12.0) (b)   11.2 (SD=12.7) (d)
Total               17.0 (SD=12.8) (b)   8.3 (SD=8.5) (d)

Note: Only examining differences with 12-19 age group.

(a) is significantly different from (b) (p.= .001-.004)
(c) is significantly different from (d) (p.= .000)