Sport participant attitudes toward ambush marketing: an exploratory study of ING New York City marathon runners.
McKelvey, Steve ; Sandler, Dennis ; Snyder, Kevin 等
Introduction
According to IEG's annual industry forecast, North American sport sponsorship spending was projected to be $12.38 billion in 2011, a
dramatic increase from the $8.31 billion spent in 2005 (IEG, 2011).
Corporations continue to invest millions of dollars to secure official
sponsorship rights to major sporting events. For instance, official
sponsors of the FIFA World Cup invested an estimated total of $1.6
billion during the 2007-2010 quadrennial, up from $584 million in the
1999-2002 period (FIFA secures, 2010). For the four-year Olympiad
encompassing the 2010 Olympic Games in Vancouver and the 2012 Summer
Games in London, multinational corporations reportedly paid-between $80
million and $100 million to secure the top-tier sponsorship rights
(Cendrowski, 2010).United States-based annual mega-events such as the
Super Bowl, World Series and NCAA Men's Final Four, also attract
corporations willing to invest millions of dollars for the rights to
associate themselves with these premier events.
Particularly relevant to this study is the increase in corporate
dollars being invested in marathon running events. For instance, in 2003
the ING Group, a global financial services corporation, made a
substantial investment in the sport of marathon running, signing
agreements for entitlement rights to several high profile marathons.
Among these was the New York City Marathon, which ING twice renewed at
an annual sponsorship fee believed to be in the range of $2 to $3
million per year (Lefton, 2009).
Over the past decade, marathon running has seen a surge in
corporate sponsorship support. The ING New York City Marathon, by far
the biggest race of the year as measured by revenue, increased its
sponsorship roster in 2009 from 27 to 31 companies with the addition of
official sponsors Hospital for Special Surgery, T-Mobile, Grana Padano
Cheese and Philips (Kaplan, 2009). Both participation numbers and
sponsorship income have grown at events nationwide, including the 2009
ING New York City Marathon which generated a reported $30 million
(Kaplan, 2009). Competitor Group Inc., which in 2009 owned and operated
13 marathons and half-marathons under the title of Rock N Roll Marathon
Series(Kaplan, 2009), had by 2011 grown its series to over 23 such
marathon events (http://www.runrocknroll.competitor.com).
Sponsorship has been defined as "a cash and/or in-kind fee
paid to a property (typically a sports, entertainment, non-profit event
or organization) in return for access to the exploitable commercial
potential associated with the property" (Ukman, 1995, p. 1). The
property and sponsor enter into a contract that:
involves a commercial transaction to transfer defined rights,
either exclusively or jointly, to a purchaser. As in any contract, the
vendor's [property's] ownership of the rights, the freedom to
transfer these rights, and the ability to effect the transfer may all be
at issue. In a typical sponsorship package, the sponsor may buy various
rights including event title or category rights (e.g., official soft
drink), signage rights, rights to specific designated emblems and logos,
rights to use the word "official," rights to specific event
advertising, promotions, and publication inclusions, and certain
first-option rights. The specific rights vary according to the size and
nature of the event and the specifics of the contract. In major global
events, the rights issue is often complex (Meenaghan, 1996, p. 105).
However, the continued growth and popularity of sport sponsorship
as a viable marketing strategy presents potential consequences for sport
properties and official sponsors: "The practice of ambush marketing by certain corporations is now recognized as common practice in the
sport industry as it has become an alternative strategy to purchasing
the rights to official sponsorship status" (Seguin &
O'Reilly, 2008, p. 66). The on-going debate and concern over the
practice of ambush marketing is fueled by three concurrent pressures.
First is the continued escalation of sponsorship fees, which has
compelled increasing demand for internal demonstration and evaluation of
return-on-investment (ROI) or return-on-objectives (ROO). Second is the
property's contractual promise of exclusivity, which has fueled a
more aggressive approach by properties seeking to protect the
investments of its official sponsors. Third, as sponsorship categories
become less available or simply over-priced, non-sponsor companies seek
alternative strategies for gaining an unauthorized yet legal association
with premier sporting events.
Current Perspectives on Ambush Marketing
Over the past decade, perceptions of and perspectives on ambush
marketing have evolved as a result of dialogue amongst both scholars and
practitioners. While the earliest definitions of ambush marketing used
pejorative terms to describe an "immoral" practice, more
recent thinking acknowledges the considerable vagueness that surrounds
the concept and also provides a conceptual framework of ambush marketing
that more accurately reflects the balancing of sponsors'
contractual rights against the rights of non-sponsors to maintain a
market presence during an event through legal and competitive business
activities (Crow & Hoek, 2003). Hence, while at one extreme end of
the ambush marketing conceptual debate we have what the Olympics
Movement continues to publicly refer to as "parasite marketing" (Payne, 1993), at the other end are much more neutral
terms such as "parallel marketing" (Glengarry, 2007).
Historically, the term "ambush marketing" has been
defined from the perspective of the sport property. The review of the
academic literature illustrates the challenges in conceptualizing
"ambush marketing," the term that was coined during the 1984
Los Angeles Olympic Games to describe the marketing activities of
non-sponsors such as Kodak, which utilized a variety of tactics to
"ambush" official sponsor Fuji (Sandler & Shani, 1989).
The earliest definitions of ambush marketing were pejorative, implying
unethical business conduct laden with the evil intent (thus supporting
the perspective of event organizers and official sponsors). For
instance, the term was initially defined as "a company's
intentional efforts to weaken--or ambush--its competitor's
'official sponsorship.' It does this by engaging in promotions
and advertising that trade off the event or property's goodwill and
reputation, and that seek to confuse the buying public as to which
companies really hold official sponsorship rights" (McKelvey, 1994,
p. 20). Townley, Harrington and Couchman (1998) later stressed the
concept of "unauthorized association" in defining ambush
marketing, stating that the practice:
consists in the sports context of the unauthorised
association by businesses of their names, brands,
products or services with a sports event or competition
through any one of a wide range of marketing
activities; unauthorized in the sense that the
controller of the commercial rights in such events,
usually the relevant governing body, has neither
sanctioned nor licensed the association, either itself
or through commercial agents (p. 1).
In this context, ambush marketing has been viewed as not only those
activities that are aimed specifically at undermining a
competitor's official sponsorship of an event, but also those
activities that seek to associate a non-sponsor with the sporting event
itself. Additional literature on ambush marketing has suggested that, in
contrast to the pejorative definition, ambush marketing can be more
broadly defined to describe "a whole variety of wholly legitimate
and morally correct methods of intruding upon public consciousness
surrounding an event" (Meenaghan, 1994, p. 79).
More recent scholarly research on the topic of ambush marketing has
suggested that the term "ambush marketing" is often utilized
inappropriately (Hoek & Gendall, 2002; Crow & Hoek, 2003). For
instance, the term "ambush marketing" presents a number of
grey areas. For instance, should an activity be deemed "ambush
marketing" if the non-sponsor's activity is in fact legal?
What if there is no purposeful intent to confuse consumers as to a
non-sponsor's association with an event? If a company is
legitimately sponsoring a team within a league (or a National Governing
Body within the IOC), and within the league's sponsorship
guidelines, is it still ambush marketing? Is it ambush marketing solely
because the event organizer says it is?
While the practice of ambush marketing has been widely debated, the
answer as to whether it is an "immoral or imaginative practice ...
may well lie in the eye of the beholder" (Meenaghan, 1994, p. 85).
For instance, event organizers and their official sponsors typically
denounce as ambush marketing any activity by a non-sponsor that
wittingly or unwittingly intrudes upon the property's and/or
official sponsors' rights, thus potentially detracting from the
sponsor's "exclusive" association with the sport
property. Utilizing this definition, for instance, even a company that
purchases advertising within the telecast of a sport special event could
be construed by the event organizer and official sponsor as an ambush
marketer regardless of that company's business motives, ethical
perspective or legal rights.
On the other hand, such activity engaged in by non-sponsors can
also be perceived and defended as nothing more than a part of the
"normal 'cut and thrust' of business activity based on a
strong economic justification" (Meenaghan, 1994, p. 85). Further
illustrating the ambiguities surrounding the concept of ambush
marketing, researchers have argued that it is unrealistic to expect
non-sponsors to make decisions regarding sponsorship differently than
they would with regard to other promotional techniques designed to
compete in the marketplace (Shani & Sandler, 1998). Recent research
has also found that even executives of top-level Olympic sponsors not
only anticipate that their competitors may likely attempt to associate
with the Olympic Games, but also have less concerns over the practice of
ambush marketing than they do over the issue of sponsorship clutter
(Seguin & O'Reilly, 2008). Interviews with senior level
executives of TOP sponsors suggested:
... from a consumer point of view, the issue was
perceived to be a business one. As one TOP sponsor
pointed out, the general public views it as two
big corporations fighting it out and they do not see
or identify with ambushing: "They just see that as
everyday business....the bottom line is that many
consumers just do not care" (p. 70).
Perspectives on and attitudes toward the practice of ambush
marketing are largely influenced by one's role in the sponsorship
equation: sport properties and official sponsors will typically hold a
much different viewpoint than non-sponsors. While it is proper to
refrain from unilaterally labeling ambush marketing as illegal, immoral
or unethical, it is nonetheless important to recognize that sport
properties may have legitimate concerns about the viability and
integrity of their sponsorship programs if unable to prevent unfettered
ambush marketing.
Review of Prior Studies of Non-Participants
The effectiveness and efficacy of ambush marketing has been the
topic of numerous academic studies, given the potential negative
consequences that ambush marketing programs can have on the official
sponsorship programs of established sport properties ranging from the
international (e.g., Olympic Movement) to the national (e.g., Super
Bowl) to the local level (e.g., Falmouth Road Race).
Much of the prior research into ambush marketing has examined the
first-level effects on consumers through recall and recognition studies
(Crimmins & Horn, 1996; Kinney & McDaniel, 1996; McDaniel &
Kinney, 1998; Sandler & Shani, 1989; Shani & Sandler, 1993,
1998). Research studies have also focused on the ability of ambush
marketing campaigns to confuse consumers as to who are the official
sponsors. For instance, longitudinal studies by Sandler and Shani (1989,
1993) and Shani and Sandler (1998) consistently found that the level of
consumer confusion is high and that companies that actively engaged in
ambush marketing typically perform better than companies that choose not
to implement such strategies. While it should be noted that other
researchers, including Crompton (2004), have questioned the
effectiveness of recall and recognition studies, suggesting that a
brand's popularity rather than its associations is most likely to
be recalled, prior studies have indicated that consumers have difficulty
distinguishing sponsors from non-sponsors (Pitts & Slattery, 2004;
Sandler & Shani, 1993; Seguin et al., 2005; Shani & Sandler,
1998). Studies have also found that most consumers are not aware of the
practice of ambush marketing (Seguin et al., 2005; Shani & Sandler,
1998), and that confusion exists in consumers' minds about the
classification, identification and recognition of sponsors (Lyberger
& McCarthy, 2001; McDaniel & Kinney, 1998; Seguin et al., 2005;
Shani & Sandler, 1998; Stotlar, 1993).
Several prior studies have included an effort to ascertain
attitudes toward the practice of ambush marketing. To date, these
studies have focused on non-participant sport consumers(Sandler &
Shani, 1993; Shani & Sandler, 1998; Lyberger & McCarthy, 2001;
Moorman & Greenwell, 2005; Seguin, Lyberger, O'Reilly and
McCarthy, 2005). This focus on non-participant sport consumers makes
sense, given that the sporting events that most often attract ambush
marketers do so precisely because of their large spectating and viewing
audience. Generally, all of these studies have found, as described by
Lyberger & McCarthy (2001) in their particular study of Super Bowl
consumers, "a considerable level of respondent apathy toward the
practice of ambush marketing" (p. 135).
Although these non-participant studies have found a high degree of
indifference toward the practice of ambush marketing, involvement
frameworks suggest a theoretical rationale for why the attitudes of
sport participants may differ. Prior studies have looked at the role of
involvement theory to sport participants without assessing attitudes on
ambush marketing (Beaton et al., 2011; Beaton & Funk, 2008; Funk
& James, 2001). For instance, Beaton et al. (2011) noted the
behavior changes in marathon runners as involvement increases. As
marathon runners become involved and move along the Psychological
Continuum Model (PCM), they are more likely to increase their running
related activities and develop social connections related to the sport
(Beaton et al., 2011; Funk & James, 2001). Further, Beaton and Funk
(2008) discuss a Theory of Participation (TOP) in physically active
leisure, based on the Psychological Continuum Model (Funk & James,
2001), consisting of stages of Awareness, Attraction, Attachment and
Allegiance, where individuals move through the stages as they progress
in the sport.
However, the construct of involvement can be conceptualized in many
other ways. For example, enduring involvement has been described as an
"unobservable state of motivation, arousal or interest toward a
recreational activity or associated product, evoked by a particular
stimulus or situation, and which has drive properties" (Havitz
& Mannell, 2005, p. 153). Behavioral involvement, defined as the
"time and/or intensity of effort expended in pursuing a particular
activity," is captured in the categorization of runner levels by
the NYRR (Stone, 1984, p. 210). For these runners, the training and
dedication required to complete a marathon suggests that participants
are involved at many different levels, including physically,
psychologically, and emotionally. Runners who have taken on this
challenge repeatedly and who can compete at the highest levels can be
described as highly involved in all facets.
In addition to impacting participant behaviors, involvement has
also been considered in a number of studies on event sponsorship
(Bennett et al., 2009). As further suggested by Humphreys et al. (2010),
who reported on two experiments that examined the effects of
counter-ambushing communications, "personal involvement with an
event or sport has been shown to significantly influence sponsorship
outcomes ... Individuals with high felt involvement for a sport or event
may feel more resentment toward ambushers or be more likely to seek out
or attend to information regarding ambushing activities" (p. 107).
Hedonic and symbolic attributes can also be included in the
construct of involvement, with past research noting that these aspects
become more important to sport participants as involvement increases
(Beaton et al., 2011). Given that marathon participants derive higher
levels of pleasure from the activity and use the sport's symbols to
define themselves, sponsors have recognized an opportunity to engage
this willing audience. At large running events, such as marathons, these
partners play a central role in delivering a gratifying running
competition and providing a forum for runners to express their identity.
By targeting these highly involved runners, sponsors hope to tap into
the centrality of the sport to these individuals. Therefore, the
connection between increases in involvement and increases in hedonic and
symbolic properties is also a driving factor in sponsorship activities
(Beaton et al., 2011). Similar to other sponsorship objectives, marathon
partners hope that these actions are reciprocated by runners in the form
of higher product awareness, greater purchase intentions, and opposition
to ambush attempts.
While prior research has found involvement to be a factor in
participants and non-participants, this study proposes that differences
exist in each group's response to marketing messages. This paper
seeks to contribute to the involvement and ambush marketing literature
by noting the differences in behavior of involved participants. Given
these prior research studies, the overarching question sought to be
examined by this exploratory multi-year study was whether the attitudes
of sport participants toward the practice of ambush marketing differed
in any substantive way from that of non-participants (e.g., spectators,
viewers and general consumers).
Method
To conduct this study, surveys were used to collect a random sample
of participants in both the 2005 and 2008 ING New York Marathons.
Running events were selected as they are among the most popular
participatory sports that typically involve significant levels of
sponsorship activity, with the ING New York Marathon being among the
largest with over 40,000 runners annually (http://www.NYRR.org). The
study was first conducted in 2005 after the researchers were granted
access to participants through the New York Road Runners (NYRR), the
marathon's organizing body. Verification of the findings in the
2005 survey was sought by re-conducting the survey in 2008, the next
opportunity where access was available through the NYRR. In both years,
an online survey was used to collect data to assess the
participants' attitudes towards the practice of ambush marketing.
The survey was distributed to 5000 participants through the NYRR and
SPSS 18.0 was used to analyze the results.
Instrumentation
Using Survey Monkey, the questionnaire was designed to collect data
on running patterns, past marathon experiences, involvement in running,
aided and unaided awareness of sponsors, and attitudes toward the
practice of ambush marketing. To allow for comparisons across both 2005
and 2008, the same survey instrument was used in both years. The only
differences were slight changes to the sponsorship categories (based on
NYRR designation) and the updating of categories whose sponsor had
changed. To assess the level of involvement, runners were asked to
self-report their average number of miles run per week, number of NYC Marathons run, total number of marathons run, and their "level of
competition" (beginner, intermediate, competitive and
professional). These levels, tied to running speeds and goals, were
created by the NYRR and are provided to the runners in advance of the
race as a means of determining start times (see Appendix A). This
information provided a basis of comparison between groups.
Given that the levels of competition, as defined by the NYRR, take
running ability, dedication, and goals into account, the use of
"level of competition" represents a more holistic proxy for
involvement in marathon running. For additional support, past marathon
experiences and miles run per week were compared to the NYRR "level
of competition" variable. Based on high correlations of these
variables and the NYRR definitions, the "levels of
competition" were deemed to be suitable for differentiating
segments of runners.
While the primary purpose of the study was to assess
participants' attitudes toward the practice of ambush marketing,
prior research has consistently suggested that the measurement of
sponsorship recall and recognition is an important antecedent and
component to measuring attitudes toward ambush marketing (Lyberger &
McCarthy, 2001; McDaniel & Kinney, 1998; Sandler & Shani, 1989;
Sandler & Shani, 1993; Seguin, et al., 2005; Stotlar, 1993). Hence,
the survey included a section on aided recall and recognition of
official ING NYC Marathon sponsors. For the former, respondents were
provided with seven sponsorship categories and asked to name the
official sponsor in each category (categories were those in which
official sponsors had the highest level of financial commitment to the
ING NYC Marathon). For the latter, respondents were provided a list of
10 sponsorship categories accompanied by four brands within each
category (only one of which was the correct official sponsor), and asked
to select the official sponsor within each category. Prior research
studies on ambush marketing have also suggested that the validity of the
measurement of attitudes toward ambush marketing depends in part on the
respondents' knowledge of the concept of sponsorship in general.
Hence, while not a primary focus of this particular study, the
researchers included several questions to gauge the level of
respondents' knowledge about sponsorship in the context of the
marathon.
The researchers next sought to measure the participants'
attitudes toward the practice of ambush marketing. The researchers
adapted the survey instrument developed and previously utilized by
Sandler and Shani (1989), asking respondents to rank responses to a
series of 19 statements on a Likert scale (1 = low, 7 = high). Sandler
and Shani's (1989) scale has been found to be accurate in measuring
attitudes towards ambush marketing and is a reliable tool that can be
used repeatedly. The minimal modifications in the survey were done to
reflect its applicability to participants instead of spectators.
Finally, demographic information was collected on participants,
including age, gender, marital status, income, and level of education.
Several questions were also included to assess overall impressions of
the marathon and familiarity with the race organizers and winners.
Procedure
The researchers contacted 5,000 participants via e-mail within five
business days following both the 2005 and 2008 New York City Marathons.
The participants were randomly chosen from the NYRR database of marathon
entrants, and contacted approximately one week after the conclusion of
the race. The email consisted of a brief cover letter from the
NYRR's chief marketing officer, indicating that the survey was
being conducted in partnership with a university-based research
initiative. The cover letter included a direct link to the survey
instrument and indicated that approximately 12-15 minutes would be
needed to complete the survey. Respondents were given two weeks to
complete the survey and no follow-up reminder was provided. For 2005 and
2008, the researchers received 1,743 and 1,670 usable responses for a
response rate of 35% and 33%, respectively. A variety of analytical
methods, including ANOVA, exploratory factor analysis and descriptive
statistics, were then used to assess the participants' ability to
identify sponsors, as well as their perceptions of and attitudes toward
ambush marketing.
Results
Demographically, runners were relatively evenly distributed between
men and women (54% male), as well as among age groups (the 30-39 age
group was the most common group at 33%). Respondents were well-educated
(93% reported having either an undergraduate or graduate college
degree), with high annual household income (65% reported annual HH
incomes of $100,000+). To assess the similarity between the population
of runners in 2005 and 2008, a chi-square test was performed.
Statistically significant differences were found between the two groups
with the runners in 2008 identifying more official sponsors. Since some
sponsors changed and activation plans evolved, thereby potentially
altering ambush marketing impressions, the runners' experience in
2008 was slightly different than one from 2005. Considering this along
with the statistical difference in populations, each year was analyzed
separately.
Attitudes Toward the Practice of Ambush Marketing
The results from both the 2005 and 2008 surveys strongly indicated
that participants hold negative attitudes toward the practice of ambush
marketers. What is especially remarkable, in examining the data in Table
1, is the similarity in responses in the two surveys, not only in terms
of levels of agreement/disagreement with the statements, but also their
percentages of agreement/disagreement. For example, in 2008
approximately two-thirds (66%) of respondents disagreed with the
statement "it is fair for companies to associate themselves with
the NYC Marathon without being official sponsors" (M = 2.97, SD =
1.46); in 2005, 66% of respondents disagreed with this statement (M =
2.90, SD = 1.47). Further of note, in the 2008 survey, nearly two thirds
of the respondents (60%) indicated their opinion of non-official sponsor
companies "trying to pretend that it is supporting the NYC ... is
lowered" (M = 4.69, SD = 1.74); in 2005, 65% of respondents agreed
with this statement (M = 4.93, SD = 1.71). Finally, in both 2005 and
2008, more than half of the respondents agreed with the proposition that
ambush marketing was "unethical" (52% agreement in 2008; 55%
agreement in 2005). Participants also scored well on questions testing
their knowledge of sponsorship rights. In both years, over 80% of
respondents correctly stated that the ING NYC Marathon logo could only
be used by official sponsors. Further, approximately two-thirds of the
runners who responded correctly noted that any company, whether a
sponsor or not, could advertise during the television broadcast.
With the use of a 7-point Likert scale, a response of 4 suggests
"no opinion" on the statement. Thus, answering 4 represents
the minimum value and can be used for comparison to mean responses. Mean
scores of each attitudinal question from both years were compared to the
neutral score of 4.0 to determine statistical significance. T-statistics
indicate significant agreement/disagreement for each attitudinal
question in both 2005 and 2008. This suggests that the group of runners
holds definitive opinions on the topics in question. Further detail can
be found in Table 1.
ANOVA and chi-square analyses were conducted on the
participants' perceptions of and attitudes toward ambush marketing
to determine if there were any significant differences based upon the
respondents' self-reported "level of competition." While
each population differed slightly, the analysis found no statistical
difference between the groups, and furthermore, each group was largely
opposed to the practice of ambush marketing. Beginner-level runners
demonstrated attitudes toward the practice of ambush marketing that were
statistically similar to those participants at the competitive level.
Aided Recall and Recognition
After noting the participants' strong opposition to ambush
marketing, analysis was performed on sponsor identification questions to
determine if the runners might be able to separate official sponsors
from nonsponsors. The respondents' exceptional ability to recall
and recognize official sponsors, combined with negative attitudes toward
the practice of ambush marketing, suggests a level of engagement with
event supporters that differs dramatically from that found in prior the
academic studies. However, resistance toward the practice of ambush
marketing is largely irrelevant if the audience cannot identify the
actual official sponsors.
As the results were tabulated, respondents' level of success
on the aided recall and recognition questions were scored for comparison
with their reported level of competition. Table 2 illustrates that NYC
Marathon participants demonstrated a substantially high level of
proficiency in the aided recall and recognition of the event's
official sponsors. In both years, runners were able to correctly
identify the majority of official sponsors. By comparison, in the prior
consumer-oriented surveys involving other major sporting events
(discussed above), respondents have generally struggled to correctly
identify official sponsors.
While companies with a long history of sponsoring the NYC Marathon
might have been expected to fare better in the survey, there was, as
illustrated in Table 2, no statistically significant correlation between
the number of years that a company had sponsored the marathon and the
respondents' ability to correctly recall or recognize that company.
This suggests that any advantage more competitive runners would have
from participating in the prior races would be negated. However, what
may explain this discrepancy in aided recall rates is the level or
extent of sponsorship activation by each particular sponsor. As
illustrated in Table 2, the highest percentage of correct responses in
both aided recall and recognition were found for companies whose
products were used by runners in the course of the race and/or were more
indigenous to the sport of running, i.e. there was a good
"fit" between sponsor and running (Note: although ING is not
such a product, one would naturally expect an extraordinary level of
recall for the race's title sponsor). For example, in 2008,
first-year sponsor Emerald Nuts (Healthy Snack sponsor) received the
second-highest level of aided recognition, perhaps explained by the fact
that the product was distributed to runners towards the end of the race
as an energy boost to propel them to the finish (Greenberg, 2008).
Conversely, products and services less endemic to the sport of running,
and hence not consumed by the runners during the race, received
significantly lower levels of recall and recognition.
To further illuminate the sponsor identification findings,
participants were segmented into their self-reported levels of
competition (beginner, intermediate, or competitive) (Note: A
professional category was provided in the survey but not analyzed in the
study due to the low number of respondents who fell in this
classification). As illustrated in Table 3, the differences in sponsor
identification rates between these groups were, as determined by ANOVA,
statistically significant (2008: F-statistic = 5.865, p < 0.00; 2005
F-statistic = .719). Chi-square, Bonferroni correction and Fisher's
least significant difference post-hoc tests were run to support the
ANOVA results. Statistical analysis confirmed significant differences in
one's ability to identify sponsors as involvement levels increase.
Variations were statistically significant between the beginner and
competitive levels in each of the tests. In total, the statistical
analyses illustrate targeted consumers, the participants, with a greater
sense of sponsor support and opposition to ambush marketing. As
involvement increases from beginning to competitive, runners are better
able to identify correct sponsors while developing adverse views towards
those companies who engage in ambush marketing tactics.
Discussion
During the 2003 Boston Marathon, Reebok engaged in a highly
publicized ambush marketing campaign by providing participants and
spectators with Reebok-logo'd temporary tattoos designed to be worn
on foreheads. In response to this campaign, one industry executive
commented: "I think [Reebok's tactic] is aggressive and I
think it's clever, but I don't think it's in any way
authentic or effective. I would love to see the opinions of the 25,000
Boston runners, the opinion leaders. Most of them don't wear
adidas, but I think they appreciate adidas for helping them have the
experience they're having" (Liberman, 2003).
This exploratory study sought to begin to address the issues raised
by this practitioner, at least as it relates to the sport of marathon
running. The study, conducted across two separate years, found results
that were substantially different from those reported in prior studies
involving non-participants (e.g., spectators, viewers, and general
consumers). What was particularly interesting was the similarly in the
runners' strong negative attitudes toward the practice of ambush
marketing, despite their being surveyed three years apart. This was most
strongly illustrated in the responses to two of the most important
attitudinal questions, the first dealing with "fairness" and
the second dealing with whether their opinion of ambush marketers is
"lowered." For both questions, and in both 2005 and 2008,
essentially two-thirds (66%) of the respondents voiced negative
attitudes. The responses to these questions are in stark contrast to
those found in the prior study of non-participants. Additionally,
although there was not as strong an agreement on the ethical question of
ambush marketing, it is still worth noting that the percentage of
respondents who agreed with the proposition that ambush marketing was
"unethical" was over 50% in both years. The large number of
respondents, coupled with the consistency in their responses for both
2005 and 2008, provides ample verification for the premise that New York
City Marathon runners generally hold negative attitudes toward the
practice of ambush marketing.
There are several theoretical frameworks that might help explain
the results of this exploratory study, each with its own set of
implications for sport managers. Future research of sport event
participants should seek to further explore the application of these.
The first is grounded in sponsorship literature; the second is grounded
in involvement theory.
Shani & Sandler (1998) and Meenaghan (1998), among others, have
suggested that a strong identification with sponsorship by the consumer
requires not only a knowledge of the event, but also an emotional link
with the activity and/or the sponsor. Along this line of reasoning, it
could be argued that the runners in the New York City Marathon simply
know more about sponsorship generally and about specific sponsors than
do non-participants. It is counter-intuitive that participants could be
against ambush marketing if they did not have some pre-existing
knowledge about how sponsorship works. Hence, it is important and
relevant that in both surveys the respondents demonstrated both solid
knowledge of sponsorship and high levels of sponsor recall and
recognition. It has been anecdotally reported that participants in
events like marathons are much more attuned to the important financial
role that sponsors play in helping to make the event happen (Abel,
2007). Conversely, non-participants generally know little about how
sponsorship works (e.g., Lyberger & McCarthy, 2001); nor do they
believe that the event that they are attending or viewing (e.g., the
Super Bowl or Olympics) would not occur without the financial support
and involvement of sponsors.
While Crompton (2004) has raised issues regarding the effectiveness
of recall and recognition studies (specifically suggesting that results
may tie more appropriately to brand popularity), this study suggests
that successful integration of the sponsor brand may help explain the
relatively high levels of recall and recognition amongst respondents.
Hence, if participants appreciate the important role that sponsors play
in making the event happen, and additionally are made well aware of the
sponsors through high levels of product/service integration, it becomes
more readily understood why they may harbor negative attitudes toward
ambush marketing.
Sponsors at participatory events like marathons are unique in their
ability to integrate product usage into the event itself. As illustrated
in Table 2, endemic sponsor products most utilized by the runners in the
course of the event achieved by far the highest levels of recall and
recognition. For instance, as the official sports drink (Gatorade),
official water (Poland Springs) and official snack (Emerald Nuts) not
only have prominence along the race route in terms of signage, but
product samples are also liberally distributed to runners throughout the
race (hence, providing runners with free value-added benefits). Each
year, Barilla (pasta) sponsors the runners pre-race carbohydrate-loading
dinner, while Dunkin Donuts has prominent involvement by providing the
runners with free coffee and donuts prior to the start of the race.
Activities such as these, in which sponsors are "woven into the DNA of the event" (Abel, 2007, p. 21), enhance the opportunities not
only for sponsors to become further entrenched in the minds of the
participants, but also to build good-will with the participants. It is
this sponsor knowledge and goodwill which arguably explains why
participants would have a negative attitude toward ambush marketers.
The concept of involvement provides a second lens through which to
view the findings in this exploratory study. As has been suggested by
Humphreys et al. (2010), "personal involvement with an event or
sport has been shown to significantly influence sponsorship outcomes...
Individuals with high involvement for a sport or event may feel more
resentment toward ambushers or be more likely to seek out or attend to
information regarding ambushing activities" (p. 107). As Table 3
suggests, the ability to correctly identify official sponsors appears to
increase with the participants' level of competition. One possible
explanation is that those runners in the higher levels of competition
are more emotionally and behaviorally involved in running and the
sponsors who support running events. They would be moving along the
Psychological Continuum Model (PCM) (Beaton et al., 2011). The data
suggests that as runners improve their times and shift goals towards
becoming stronger runners, they may become more attached to the sport
and seek to relate to those companies and organizations that are
supportive of running. Beginner-level runners may seek a connection to
sponsors in an attempt to align themselves with their sport, and to
achieve legitimacy that their so-called level of competition precludes.
Further research is necessary to determine how these psychological
connections are made. The findings do suggest, however, that
participation at any level of competition appears to create both
goodwill towards official sponsors and negative feelings toward and
suspicion of ambush marketers.
The findings of this study provide several benefits to the managers
of the NYC Marathon and can be applied to similarly-situated
participatory-based sport events. First, information gleaned from this
study strengthens the ability of the NYRR to renew its sponsors by
citing the extremely high levels of sponsor identification that can be
achieved through product/service immersion into the event coupled with
creative sponsor activation to the extent that participants and the
target of sponsorship is participants. The findings also provide
evidence that the more that a sponsor can be effectively integrated into
the event itself, the more likely that sponsor is able to be recalled or
recognized by the participants. Perhaps most importantly, within the
context of this study, the findings in terms of attitudes toward the
practice of ambush marketing provide a valuable tool for sport managers.
By publicly communicating the key findings of this study--that a strong
majority of participants think more negatively toward ambush
marketers--the NYRR can potentially dissuade companies from engaging in
ambush marketing activity. It becomes much more unlikely that
non-sponsor companies will elect to engage in ambush marketing if they
know that the participants are more likely to think negatively of them.
Study Limitations and Future Research
This exploratory study has a number of limitations. First, because
the focus of this study was on one sporting event, the findings may thus
be representative only of a specific group of participants (e.g., NYC
Marathon runners). Hence, the results are not generalizable to other
major marathons contested throughout the country and the world, or to
other participatory-based sporting events such as cycling and triathlon events. Second, although the primary purpose was to better understand
the attitudes of participants toward the practice of ambush marketing,
this study did not provide for direct comparison to the attitudes
on-site spectators toward the practice of ambush marketing. Hence, to
the extent that the researchers discuss a comparison of attitudes toward
the practice of ambush marketing between sport participants and
non-participants, the researchers rely solely on prior studies unrelated
to marathon running. Despite these limitations, however, this research
provides a foundation for future studies that can directly compare
participants and spectators at the same participatory-based event.
Further research should also be undertaken with respect to other
participatory-based events where the sponsors' primary target
audience is the participants themselves (e.g., other marathons,
triathlons, cycling, youth sports leagues).
This exploratory study provides the basis for additional research
to help better explain the basis of participants' negative
attitudes toward the practice of ambush marketing. Specifically,
research should aim to better understand how knowledge of sponsorship
generally, ability to correctly identify sponsors, and the
participants' appreciation of sponsorship's role in helping to
make the event happen, impacts attitudes toward ambush marketing. Future
research should also seek to assess the impact of involvement theory,
including but not limited to the extent to which the involvement is with
the sport (in this case, running) as opposed to the event and its
sponsors (NYC Marathon). Furthermore, future research should endeavor to
obtain better demographic, psychographics and behavioral profiles that
can then be compared to sponsorship objectives. Finally, while this
study was based solely on quantitative methodology, qualitative
interviews with runners could provide more explanation and insight as to
why participants appear to more strongly oppose ambush marketing than
spectators. In sum, a number of future research initiatives could
illuminate the transferability of the instant findings to a broader
array of participatory-based sport events.
Conclusion
The extent to which participants in the New York City Marathon held
negative attitudes toward the practice of ambush marketing--particularly
given the findings in prior studies involving non-participant sport
consumers--presents some ground-breaking research within this
discipline. Granted, not all participatory-based sport events have the
potential to be detrimentally impacted by ambush marketing. However,
certainly events like major marathons, triathlons and cycling
events--sometimes featuring tens of thousands of participants--are the
types of event that could further benefit from this line of research.
Spectators have little or no emotional attachment or connection to the
official sponsors of spectator-based events such as the Super Bowl or
the Olympics; furthermore, these types of events are going to happen
with or without the support of official sponsors. Conversely, one can
intuitively make the argument that those involved in participatory-based
events (e.g., marathons) are more likely to understand and appreciate
the importance of official sponsors in underwriting their event.
Furthermore, participants much more often actively "engage"
with official sponsors during the course of an event, particularly with
sponsors whose products are endemic to the event itself. This
exploratory study should set the stage for future research into the
factors that influence negative attitudes toward the practice of ambush
marketing.
References
Abel, G. (2007, October 29). Sponsors build connections with
runners. Sports Business Journal, p. 21.
Beaton, A. A., Funk, D. C., Ridinger, L., & Jordan, J. (2011).
Sport involvement: An empirical and conceptual analysis. Sport
Management Review, 14(2), 126-140.
Beaton A. A., & Funk, D. C., (2008). An evaluation of
theoretical frameworks for studying leisure research. Leisure Sciences,
30, 1-18.
Beaton, A. A., Funk, D. C., & Alexandris, K. (2008).
Operationalizing a theory of participation in physically active leisure.
Journal of Leisure Research, 4J(2),177-204.
Bennett, G., Ferreira, M., Lee, J., & Polite, F. (2009). The
role of involvement in sports and sport spectatorship in sponsor's
brand use: The case of mountain dew and action sports sponsorship. Sport
Marketing Quarterly, 18(1), 14-25.
Cendrowski, S. (2010, January 18). Let the games begin. Fortune, p.
17.
Crimmins, J., & Horn, M. (1996). Sponsorship: From management
ego trip to marketing success. Journal of Advertising Research, 36,
11-21.
Crompton, J. L. (2004). Sponsorship ambushing in sport. Managing
Leisure, 9, 1-2.
Crow, D., & Hoek, J. (2003). Ambush marketing: A critical
review and some practical advice, Marketing Bulletin, 14(1), 1-14.
Downey, D. J., & Huffman, M. L. (2001). Attitudinal
polarization and trimodal distributions: Measurement problems and
theoretical implications. Social Science Quarterly, 82, 494-505.
FIFA secures $1.6 Billion in World Cup Sponsorship Revenues (2010,
June 3). Retrieved from
http://newsguide.us/index.php?path=/business/advertising-marketing/FIFA-Secures-1-6-Billion-in- World-Cup-Sponsorship- Revenue/
Funk, D. C., & James, J. (2001). The psychological continuum
model: A conceptual framework for understanding an individual's
psychological connection to sport. Sport Management Review, 4(2),
119-150.
Glengarry, J. (2007). Let's not ambush our civil rights.
Bundle Finley. Retrieved from
http://buddlefindlay.com/upload/Let's_not_ambush_
our_civil_rights_article.pdf
Greenberg, K. (2008, October 15). N.Y. marathon sponsors race for
pole position, MediaPost. Retrieved from
http://www.mediapost.com/publications/index.cfm?fa=Articles.showArticle&art_aid=92646
Havitz, M., & Mannell, R. (2005). Enduring involvement,
situational involvement and flow in leisure and non-leisure activities.
Journal of Leisure Research, 37, 152-177.
Hoek, J., & Gendall, P. (2002). Ambush marketing: More than
just a commercial irritant? Entertainment Law, 1(2), 72-91.
Humphreys, M. S., Cornwell, T. B., McAlister, A. R., Kelly, S. J.,
Quinn, E. A., & Murray, K. L. (2010). Sponsorship, ambushing, and
counter-strategy: Effects upon memory for sponsor and event. Journal of
Experimental Psychology, 16(1), 96-108.
Kaplan, D. (2009, October 26). Marathons fight through economy,
execs say. Sports Business Journal, p. 33.
Kinney, L., & McDaniel, S. (1996). Strategic implications of
attitude-toward-the-ad in leveraging event sponsorship. Journal of Sport
Management, 10(3), 250-261.
IEG (2011, January 4). Sponsorship spending: 2010 proves better
than expected; bigger gains set for 2011. IEG Sponsorship Report, p. 1.
Lefton, T. (2009, October 26). ING to shift strategy for marathons?
Sports Business Journal, p. 1.
Liberman, N. (2003, April 28). Marathon ambush a real
head-scratcher. Sports Business Journal, p. 4.
Lyberger, M. R., & McCarthy, L. (2001). Assessment of consumer
knowledge of, interest in and perceptions of ambush marketing
strategies. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 10(2), 130-137.
McDaniel, S., & Kinney, L. (1996). Ambush marketing revisited:
An experimental study of perceived sponsorship effects on brand
awareness, attitude toward the brand and purchase intention. Journal of
Promotion Management, 3(1/2), 141-167.
McDaniel, S., & Kinney, L. (1998).The implications of recency
and gender effects in consumer response to ambush marketing. Psychology
and Marketing, 15(4), 385-403.
McKelvey, S. (1994). Atlanta '96: Olympic countdown to ambush
armageddon? Seton Hall Journal of Sport Law, 4(2), 397-445.
Meenaghan, T. (1994). Point of view: Ambush marketing: Immoral or
imaginative practice? Journal of Advertising Research, 34(5), 77-88.
Meenaghan, T. (1996). Ambush marketing: A threat to corporate
sponsorship. Sloan Management Review, 38(1), 103-113.
Meenaghan, T. (1998). Ambush marketing: Corporate strategy and
consumer reaction. Psychology and Marketing, 15(4), 305-319.
Moorman, A., & Greenwell, T. C. (2005).Consumer attitudes of
deception and the legality of ambush marketing practices. Journal of
Legal Aspects of Sport, 15, 183-212.
Payne, M. (1998). Ambush marketing: The undeserved advantage.
Psychology and Marketing, 15(4), 323-331.
Pitts, B., & Slattery, J. (2004). An examination of the effects
of time on sponsorship awareness levels. Sports Marketing Quarterly,
13(1),43-54.
Sandler, D. M., & Shani, D. (1989). Olympic sponsorship vs.
ambush marketing: Who gets the gold? Journal of Advertising Research,
29, 9-14.
Sandler, D. M., & Shani, D. (1993). Sponsorship and the Olympic
Games: The consumer perspective. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 2(3), 38-43.
Seguin, B., & O'Reilly, N. (2008).The Olympic brand,
ambush marketing and clutter. International Journal of Sport Management
and Marketing, 4(1), 62-84.
Seguin, B., Lyberger, M., O'Reilly, N., & McCarthy, L.
(2005). Internationalising ambush marketing: The Olympic brand and
country of origin. International Journal of Sport Marketing and
Sponsorship, 6(4), 216-230.
Shani, D., & Sandler, D. M. (1998). Ambush marketing: Is
confusion to blame for the flickering of the flame? Psychology and
Marketing, 15(4), 367-383.
Stone, R. (1984).The marketing characteristics of involvement.
Advances in Consumer Research 1, 210-215.
Stotlar, D. K. (1993). Sponsorship and the Olympic winter games.
Sport Marketing Quarterly, 2(1), 35-43.
Townley, S., Harrington, D., & Couchman, N. (1998). The legal
and practical prevention of ambush marketing in sports. Psychology and
Marketing, 15(4), 333-348.
Ukman, L. (1995). The IEG's complete guide to sponsorship:
Everything you need to know about sports, arts, event, entertainment and
cause marketing. Chicago: IEG, Inc.
Steve McKelvey, JD, is an associate professor and graduate program
director in the Mark H. McCormack Department of Sport Management at the
University of Massachusetts Amherst. His research interests include
legal issues in sport marketing and sport sponsorship, ambush marketing,
and sport sponsorship and consumer attitudes.
Dennis Sandler, PhD, is an associate professor of marketing at Pace
University. His research interests include advertising, sport marketing,
sponsorship, and cross-cultural marketing.
Kevin Snyder is a doctoral student at the University of
Massachusetts Amherst. His research interests include sport strategy and
innovation.
Table 1.
Ambush Marketing Attitudes
Item 2005 2008 Level of
Mean/ Mean/ agreement
StdDev StdDev with statement
(% of 5-7 responses
on Likert Scale)
It is fair for 2.90/1.47 2.97/1.46 66/66%
companies to associate
themselves with the NYC
Marathon without being
official sponsors
(Reverse Coded)
Companies that try to 2.88/1.61 2.90/1.56 66/65%
associate themselves
with the NYC Marathon
without paying for this
right are clever
(Reverse Coded)
If I see a company that 4.93/1.71 4.69/1.74 65/60%
is not a sponsor trying
to pretend that it is
supporting the NYC
Marathon, my opinion of
that company is lowered
Companies that 4.64/1.73 4.51/1.72 55/52%
associate themselves
with the NYC Marathon
without being an
official sponsor are
being unethical
I am annoyed by 4.37/1.69 4.22/1.70 46/43%
companies trying to
associate themselves
with the NYC Marathon
without being official
sponsors
If a company tries to 4.05/1.52 3.90/1.54 36/32%
associate itself with
the NYC Marathon
without being an
official sponsor, I
will be less likely to
want to purchase their
product or service in
the future
Companies that are not 3.81/1.37 3.75/1.40 26/24%
official sponsors try
to mislead the public
into believing that
they are official
sponsors
Item (2005/2008) Sig
T-Stat (with
mean
compared
to 4.0)
It is fair for 91.66 .000
companies to associate
themselves with the NYC
Marathon without being
official sponsors
(Reverse Coded)
Companies that try to 83.85 .000
associate themselves
with the NYC Marathon
without paying for this
right are clever
(Reverse Coded)
If I see a company that 138.64 .000
is not a sponsor trying
to pretend that it is
supporting the NYC
Marathon, my opinion of
that company is lowered
Companies that 128.67 .000
associate themselves
with the NYC Marathon
without being an
official sponsor are
being unethical
I am annoyed by 120.86 .000
companies trying to
associate themselves
with the NYC Marathon
without being official
sponsors
If a company tries to 122.10 .000
associate itself with
the NYC Marathon
without being an
official sponsor, I
will be less likely to
want to purchase their
product or service in
the future
Companies that are not 125.04 .000
official sponsors try
to mislead the public
into believing that
they are official
sponsors
Table 2.
2008 Aided Recall
Product Category Years as Total No. of No. of correct
Sponsor responses ID's Of sponsors
Financial Institution 6 1502 1461
Energy Bar 14 1365 1320
Water 14 1391 1267
Footwear/Running Shoe 19 1390 1109
Pasta 4 1148 908
Airline 15 895 694
Rental Car 7 476 286
2008 Aided Recognition
Sports Drink 18 1503 1353
Healthy Snack 1 1351 1094
Breakfast and Coffee 3 1340 1072
Delivery Service 14 1317 1040
Media Outlet 12 1312 1036
GPS 2 1220 891
Timekeeper 1 908 490
Athletic Retailer 9 684 280
Car 2 605 218
Beer 4 514 159
2005 Aided Recall
Financial Institution 3 1511 1466
Water 11 1467 1445
Footwear/Running Shoe 16 1261 1030
Pasta 1 1148 1069
Airline 12 939 828
Pharmacy 1 601 391
Rental Car 4 530 379
2005 Aided Recognition
Pain Reliever 4 1643 1610
Sports Drink 15 1547 1423
Delivery Service 11 1489 1325
Energy Bar 11 1466 1275
Media Outlet 9 1201 865
Electronics Store 6 1110 733
Yogurt 10 801 384
Athletic Retailer 6 777 357
Beer 1 745 328
Car 3 208 25
Product Category No. of DNK's % Correct
Financial Institution 208 97.3%
Energy Bar 345 96.7%
Water 319 91.1%
Footwear/Running Shoe 320 79.8%
Pasta 562 79.1%
Airline 845 77.5%
Rental Car 1234 60.1%
2008 Aided Recognition
Sports Drink 59 90%
Healthy Snack 162 81%
Breakfast and Coffee 298 80%
Delivery Service 217 79%
Media Outlet 312 79%
GPS 431 73%
Timekeeper 697 54%
Athletic Retailer 282 41%
Car 934 36%
Beer 974 31%
2005 Aided Recall
Financial Institution 232 97.0%
Water 276 98.5%
Footwear/Running Shoe 482 82.5%
Pasta 595 93.0%
Airline 804 88.0%
Pharmacy 1142 67.2%
Rental Car 1213 71.5%
2005 Aided Recognition
Pain Reliever 21 98%
Sports Drink 51 92%
Delivery Service 96 89%
Energy Bar 158 87%
Media Outlet 429 72%
Electronics Store 497 66%
Yogurt 719 48%
Athletic Retailer 310 46%
Beer 768 44%
Car 1261 12%
Table 3.
2008 Aided Recall
Level 2005 Average Sponsors 2008 Average Sponsors
Identified Identified
(17 total sponsors) (17 total sponsors)
Beginner 9.93 9.95 *
Intermediate 9.96 10.40 *
Competitive 10.26 10.74 *
Total (Average) 9.99 10.37
* Denotes statistically significant difference between groups at
.05, (p < .05)